Sermon and Worship Resources (2024)

A fishing town located on the northwest shore of the Sea of Galilee (Matt. 4:13). The town was on an important trade route and was a center for commerce in Galilee. In Capernaum, Jesus called Levi (Matthew) from his “tax booth,” probably a customs station for goods in transit (Mark 2:1317; Matt. 9:9–13; Luke 5:27–32). There may also have been a military garrison in Capernaum, since the town’s synagogue was built by a certain centurion whose servant Jesus healed (Matt. 8:8–13; Luke 7:1–10).

Capernaum served as Jesus’ base of operations during his Galilean ministry. In Mark’s Gospel, Jesus’ teaching and healing ministry begins there (Mark 1:21–34), and this is where he returned “home” after itinerant ministry around Galilee (Matt. 9:1; Mark 2:1; 9:33). Although Peter and Andrew were originally from Bethsaida (John 1:44), they lived in Capernaum, and their fishing business was located there. It was here that Jesus healed Peter’s mother-in-law (Mark 1:29–31) and a paralyzed man whose friends lowered him through a hole in the roof (2:1–12). Jesus later pronounced judgment against the town, together with Chorazin and Bethsaida, because of the people’s unbelief despite the miracles they had seen (Matt. 11:23–24; Luke 10:15). Archaeologists have discovered a first-century home under a fifth-century church in Capernaum. Christian inscriptions in the home indicate that it was venerated by Christians, suggesting to many scholars that this was Peter’s residence.

People in the Bible were family-centered and staunchly loyal to their kin. Families formed the foundation of society. The extended family was the source of people’s status in the community and provided the primary economic, educational, religious, and social interactions.

Marriage and divorce. Marriage in the ancient Near East was a contractual arrangement between two families, arranged by the bride’s father or a male representative. The bride’s family was paid a dowry, a “bride’s price.” Paying a dowry was not only an economic transaction but also an expression of family honor. Only the rich could afford multiple dowries. Thus, polygamy was minimal. The wedding itself was celebrated with a feast provided by the father of the groom.

The primary purpose for marriage in the ancient Near East was to produce a male heir to ensure care for the couple in their old age. The concept of inheritance was a key part of the marriage customs, especially with regard to passing along possessions and property.

Marriage among Jews in the NT era still tended to be endogamous; that is, Jews sought to marry close kin without committing incest violations (Lev. 18:617). A Jewish male certainly was expected to marry a Jew. Exogamy, marrying outside the remote kinship group, and certainly outside the ethnos, was understood as shaming God’s holiness. Thus, a Jew marrying a Gentile woman was not an option. The Romans did practice exogamy. For them, marrying outside one’s kinship group (not ethnos) was based predominantly on creating strategic alliances between families.

Greek and Roman law allowed both men and women to initiate divorce. In Jewish marriages, only the husband could initiate divorce proceedings. If a husband divorced his wife, he had to release her and repay the dowry. Divorce was common in cases of infertility (in particular if the woman had not provided male offspring). Ben Sira comments that barrenness in a woman is a cause of anxiety to the father (Sir. 42:9–10). Another reason for divorce was adultery (Exod. 20:14; Deut. 5:18). Jesus, though, taught a more restrictive use of divorce than the OT (Mark 10:1–12).

Children and parenting. Childbearing was considered representative of God’s blessing on a woman and her entire family, in particular her husband. In contrast to this blessing, barrenness brought shame on women, their families, and specifically their husbands.

Children were of low social status in society. Infant mortality was high. An estimated 60percent of the children in the first-century Mediterranean society were dead by the age of sixteen.

Ancient Near Eastern and Mediterranean societies exhibited a parenting style based on their view of human nature as a mixture of good and evil tendencies. Parents relied on physical punishment to prevent evil tendencies from developing into evil deeds (Prov. 29:15). The main concern of parents was to socialize the children into family loyalty. Lack of such loyalty was punished (Lev. 20:9). At a very early stage children were taught to accept the total authority of the father. The rearing of girls was entirely the responsibility of the women. Girls were taught domestic roles and duties as soon as possible so that they could help with household tasks.

Family identity was used as a metaphor in ancient Israel to speak of fidelity, responsibility, judgment, and reconciliation. In the OT, the people of Israel often are described as children of God. In their overall relationship to God, the people of Israel are referred to in familial terms—sons and daughters, spouse, and firstborn (Exod. 4:22). God is addressed as the father of the people (Isa. 63:16; 64:8) and referred to as their mother (Isa. 49:14–17).

The church as the family of God. Throughout his ministry, Jesus called his disciples to follow him. This was a call to loyalty (Matt. 10:32–40; 16:24–26; Mark 8:34–38; Luke 9:23–26), a call to fictive kinship, the family of God (Matt. 12:48–50; Mark 3:33–35). Jesus’ declaration “On this rock I will build my church” (Matt. 16:18) was preceded by the call to community. Entrance into the community was granted through adopting the values of the kingdom, belief, and the initiation rite of baptism (Matt. 10:37–39; 16:24–26; Mark 8:34–38; Luke 9:23–26, 57–63; John 1:12; 3:16; 10:27–29; Acts 2:38; 16:31–33; 17:30; Rom. 10:9). Jesus’ presence as the head of the community was eventually replaced by the promised Spirit (John 14:16–18). Through the Spirit, Jesus’ ministry continues in the community of his followers, God’s family—the church. See also Adoption.

The northern region of Israel. Determining the region’s precise boundaries is difficult, but in Jesus’ time it appears to have encompassed an area of about forty-five miles north to south and twenty-five miles east to west, with the Jordan River and the Sea of Galilee forming the eastern border. Josephus divides the region into Upper and Lower Galilee. Upper Galilee contains elevations of up to about four thousand feet and is composed mostly of rugged mountains, while Lower Galilee reaches a maximum height of about two thousand feet and is characterized by numerous fertile valleys. Lower Galilee was the site of most of Jesus’ ministry.

Galilee appears several times in the OT (e.g., Josh. 20:7; 1Kings 9:11; 1Chron. 6:76). It was part of the land given to the twelve tribes (Josh. 19). Since Galilee was distant from Jerusalem, which played the most prominent part in Jewish history, much of its history is not mentioned in the OT. Many of the references that do occur are military references, such as Joshua’s defeat of the kings at the waters of Merom (Josh. 11:19) and the Assyrian removal of the northern kingdom of Israel (Isa. 9:1). However, its great beauty, particularly of mountains such as Carmel, Hermon, and Lebanon, was the source of numerous images and metaphors in the poetic and prophetic literature (e.g., Ps. 133:3; Isa. 33:9; 35:2; Jer. 46:18).

Galilee figures more prominently in the NT. Jesus came from Nazareth in Galilee and conducted much of his early ministry there. Luke specifically identifies Galilee as the place where Jesus’ ministry began before spreading to Judea (Luke 23:5; Acts 10:37). Galilee is also portrayed as the place where Jesus will reunite with his disciples following the resurrection (Mark 16:7) and where he gives them the Great Commission (Matt. 28:16–20).

The central city and capital of ancient Israel. Throughout its history, the city has also been referred to variously as Zion, Jebus, Mount Moriah, and the City of David.

The name “Jerusalem” occurs more than 650 times in the OT, particularly in the history of Israel, and in the NT more than 140 times. The OT prophets used the city as a symbol of God’s dealing with his people and his plan. Jerusalem is viewed collectively as God’s abode, his chosen place, and his sovereignty, while its destruction is also representative of God’s judgment on apostasy among his people (e.g., Jer. 7:115; 26:18–19; Mic. 3:12). The rebuilding of the city represents the hope and grace of God (e.g., Isa. 40:1–2; 52:1, 7–8; 60–62; Jer. 30:18–19; 31:38–39; Ezek. 5:5; Hag. 2:6–8; Zech. 8:3–8). Like the writers of the OT, the NT authors spoke of Jerusalem in metaphorical and eschatological terms. Paul used Jerusalem to contrast the old and the new covenants (Gal. 4:24–26), and the writer of Hebrews used it as the place of the new covenant, sealed through the blood of Jesus (Heb. 12:22–24). In Revelation the concept of a new Jerusalem is related to the future kingdom of God (Rev. 3:12; 21:1–22:5).

Jerusalem is located in the Judean hill country, about 2,700 feet above sea level. It borders the Judean desert to the east. The city expanded and contracted in size over various hills and valleys. There are two major ridges (Eastern and Western Hills) separated by the Tyropoeon Valley. The Eastern Hill contains a saddle, the Ophel Hill, and north of this is the traditional site of Mount Moriah, where later the temple was constructed. The Eastern Hill was always occupied, since the only water source is the Gihon spring, located in the Kidron Valley. Two other ridges were important for the city, as they were used for extramural suburbs, cemeteries, and quarries. To the east is the Mount of Olives, which is separated from the Eastern Hill by the Kidron Valley. To the west of the Western Hill is the Central Ridge Route, separated by the Hinnom Valley.

The Israelites gathered regularly to celebrate their relationship with God. Such festivals were marked by communal meals, music, singing, dancing, and sacrifices. They celebrated, conscious that God had graciously brought them into a relationship with him. Within this covenant he had committed himself to act on their behalf both in regular ways, such as the harvest, and in exceptional ways, such as deliverance from Egypt. At the festivals, Israel celebrated God’s work in its past, present, and future and reaffirmed its relationship with this covenant God.

We know of Israel’s festivals from several calendars in the Mosaic legislation (Exod. 23:1417; 34:18–23; Lev. 23; Num. 28–29; Deut. 16:1–17), calendars further clarified by the prophets (e.g., Ezek. 45:18–25; Zech. 14), and narrative material (e.g., 2Kings 23:21–23).

Passover and the Festival of Unleavened Bread. Israel’s religious calendar began with Passover, the day set aside to commemorate deliverance from Egypt. Occurring in spring, this single day was joined with a weeklong celebration known as the Festival of Unleavened Bread, during which all males were required to make a pilgrimage to the sanctuary and offer the firstfruits of the barley harvest (Lev. 23:9–14). Israel observed Passover with rituals that reactualized the night God’s destroyer spared the Israelites in Egypt. A lamb was killed, and its blood was put on the doorposts of the homes and on the bronze altar in the sanctuary. The lamb was roasted and served with unleavened bread and bitter herbs while those partaking—dressed in their traveling clothes—listened to the retelling of the exodus story. No yeast was to be found anywhere among them, no work was to be done on the first and last days of the festival, and offerings were to be brought to the sanctuary (Num. 9:1–5; Josh. 5:10–11; 2Kings 23:21–23; 2Chron. 30; 35:1–19).

Early Christians associated Jesus’ death with that of the Passover (Paschal) lamb (1Cor. 5:7–8), encouraged by Jesus’ comments at the Last Supper (described by the Synoptic Gospels as a Passover meal [e.g., Matt. 26:17–30]). Perhaps Jesus meant to emphasize that just as Passover and the Festival of Unleavened Bread reminded God’s people of his deliverance and provision, his followers would find true freedom and full provision in him.

The Festival of Weeks. Also known as the Festival of Harvest, the Day of Firstfruits, or Pentecost (because it occurred fifty days after Passover), the Festival of Weeks took place on the sixth day of the third month (corresponding to our May or June). This marked another occasion when all Jewish men were required to come to the sanctuary. They were to bring an offering of the firstfruits of the wheat harvest, abstain from work, and devote themselves to rejoicing in God’s goodness.

Early in the NT period, if not before, this festival also became associated with the giving of the law on Mount Sinai. The Jews who assembled in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost as described in Acts 2 came to celebrate not only God’s provision but also the revelation of his nature and will. Significantly, God chose this day to send the Holy Spirit, the One who would produce a harvest of believers and reveal God more fully to the world.

The Festival of Tabernacles. So important was the Festival of Tabernacles (also known as the Festival of Ingathering or the Festival of Booths) that Israel sometimes referred to it as “the festival of the Lord” (Judg. 21:19) or simply “the festival” (cf. 1Kings 8:65). Held from the fifteenth to the twenty-first of the seventh month (September–October), this was the third of the three pilgrimage festivals. For that week, Israel lived in booths to remind them of their ancestors’ time in the wilderness. They also celebrated the fruit harvest. They were to “take the fruit of majestic trees, branches of palm trees, boughs of leafy trees, and willows of the brook; and you shall rejoice” before God for seven days (Lev. 23:40 NRSV). Avoiding all work on the first and last days of the festival, they were to mark the week with sacrifices, celebration, and joy. Also, every seventh year the law was to be read at this festival (Deut. 31:10–11).

John 7 records Jesus’ secretive departure to Jerusalem for the Festival of Tabernacles, where he spent several days teaching in the temple courts. It was on the last and greatest day of the festival when Jesus invited those thirsty to come to him and drink.

The Festival of Trumpets. Occurring on the first day of the seventh month (September–October), this feast marked the beginning of the civil and agricultural year for the Jews; it was also referred to as Rosh Hashanah (lit., “head/beginning of the year”). Observed as a Sabbath with sacrifices and trumpet blasts, this day was intended for rest and to begin preparations for the coming Day of Atonement. The Mishnah makes this connection more explicit by identifying the Festival of Trumpets as the day when “all that come into the world pass before [God] like legions of soldiers” or flocks of sheep to be judged (m.Ros.HaSh. 1:2).

The Day of Atonement. Some festivals, like Passover, looked back to what God had done or was doing for his people; other festivals, like Trumpets and the Day of Atonement (Yom Kippur), focused on the relationship itself. The latter was marked by repentance and rituals designed to remove the nation’s sins and restore fellowship with God. Coming ten days after the Festival of Trumpets, this was a solemn occasion during which the Israelites abstained from eating, drinking, and other activities. This was the only prescribed annual fast in the Jewish calendar, though other fasts were added in the fourth, fifth, seventh, and tenth months to mourn the Babylonian exile (Zech. 7:3, 5; 8:19).

In Leviticus, God clarified the purpose of this day: “On this day atonement will be made for you, to cleanse you. Then, before the Lord, you will be clean from all your sins” (16:30). Not only would the people be purified but so also would the sanctuary, so that God could continue to meet his people there. Sacrifices were offered for both priest and people, and the blood was taken into the most holy place. Only on Yom Kippur could this room be entered, and only by the high priest, who sprinkled blood on the cover of the ark of the covenant. Leaving that room, he also sprinkled blood in the holy place (16:14–17) and then on the bronze altar in the courtyard.

Yom Kippur was marked by another ritual that symbolized the removal of Israel’s sins, this one involving two goats. One goat, chosen by lot, was offered as a sacrifice to God. The high priest placed his hands on the other goat and transferred to it the sins of the nation. He then released the goat into the wilderness, for “the goat will carry on itself all their sins to a remote place” (Lev. 16:22).

The book of Hebrews uses the symbols of Yom Kippur to describe Jesus’ death. As the high priest entered the most holy place, so Jesus entered God’s presence, carrying not the blood of bull and goat but his own. His once-for-all death at the “culmination of the ages” (Heb. 9:26) not only allows him to remain in God’s presence (10:12) but also gives us access to God’s presence as well (10:19–22).

Sabbath Year. Every seven years, the Israelites were to observe a “Sabbath of the land” (Lev. 25:6 ESV), a time for the land to rest. They could not sow fields or prune vineyards, but they could eat what grew of itself (25:1–7). Deuteronomy 15:1–11 speaks of all debts being canceled (some would say deferred) every seventh year, presumably the same year the land was to lie fallow. When Israel was gathered at the Festival of Tabernacles during this Sabbath Year, the law of Moses was to be read aloud. The Chronicler described the seventy years of Babylonian exile as “sabbaths” for the land, perhaps alluding to the neglect of the Sabbath Year (2Chron. 36:21; cf. Lev. 26:43). Those returning from exile expressed their intent to keep this provision (Neh. 10:31), and it appears to have been observed in the intertestamental period (see 1Macc. 6:48–53; Josephus, Ant. 14.202–10).

This year seems intended to maintain the fertility of the land and to allow Israel’s economy to “reset,” equalizing wealth and limiting poverty. Observing such a provision took great faith and firm allegiance, for they had to trust God for daily bread and put obedience above profit. Rereading the law at the Festival of Tabernacles reminded the Israelites of God’s gracious covenant and their required response.

Jubilee. God instructed Israel to count off seven “sevens” of years and in the fiftieth year, beginning on the Day of Atonement, to sound a trumpet marking the Jubilee Year. As in the Sabbath Year, there was to be no sowing and reaping. Further, the land was released from its current owners and returned to those families to whom it originally belonged. Individual Israelites who had become indentured through economic distress were to be freed. The assumption underlying the Jubilee Year was that everything belonged to God. He owned the land and its occupants; the Israelites were only tenants and stewards (Lev. 25:23, 55). As their covenant Lord, he would provide for their needs even during back-to-back Sabbath Years (Lev. 25:21). The year began on the Day of Atonement, perhaps to emphasize that the best response to God’s redemptive mercy is faith in his provision and mercy to others. Although the Jubilee Year is commanded in the Mosaic law and spoken about by the prophets (Isa. 61:1–2; Ezek. 46:17), rabbis, and Jesus (Luke 4:18–19), Scripture is silent on how or if Israel observed this year.

New Moon. The beginning of each month was marked with the sounding of trumpets, rejoicing, and sacrifices (Num. 10:10; 28:11–15). There is some indication that work was to be suspended on this day, as on the Sabbath (Amos 8:5), and that people gathered for a meal (1Sam. 20:5, 18, 24, 27). By faithfully observing this day, Israel was in a position to properly observe the remaining days, set up, as they were, on the lunar calendar. Paul learned of some in Colossae who were giving undue attention to New Moon celebrations (Col. 2:16).

Purim. Beyond the festivals commanded in the law of Moses, the Jews added two more to their sacred calendar, one during the postexilic period and one between the Testaments. Both commemorated God’s deliverance of his people from their enemies. A wave of anti-Semitic persecution swept over the Jews living in Persia during the reign of Xerxes (486–465 BC). God delivered his people through Esther, and the Jews celebrated this deliverance with the festival of Purim. Their enemies determined when to attack by casting lots, so the Jews called this festival “Purim,” meaning “lots.” It was celebrated on the fourteenth and fifteenth days of the twelfth month (February–March) with “feasting and joy and giving presents of food to one another and gifts to the poor” (Esther 9:22).

Festival of Dedication. During the inter-testamental period, the Jews came under great persecution from the Seleucids, who outlawed the practice of Judaism and desecrated the Jerusalem temple. After recapturing the temple, the Jews began the process of purification. On the twenty-fifth day of their ninth month, in the year 164 BC, the Jews rose at dawn and offered a lawful sacrifice on the new altar of burnt offering which they had made. The altar was dedicated, to the sound of hymns, zithers, lyres and cymbals, at the same time of year and on the same day on which the gentiles had originally profaned it. The whole people fell prostrate in adoration and then praised Heaven who had granted them success. For eight days they celebrated the dedication of the altar, joyfully offering burnt offerings, communion and thanksgiving sacrifices.... Judas [Maccabees], with his brothers and the whole assembly of Israel, made it a law that the days of the dedication of the altar should be celebrated yearly at the proper season, for eight days beginning on the twenty-fifth of the month of Chislev [December], with rejoicing and gladness. (1Macc. 4:52–56, 59 NJB)

This festival is also called “Hanukkah” (from the Hebrew word for “dedicate”) or the Festival of Lights, to recall the lighting of the lamps in the temple. The rabbis told how these lamps were lit from a small quantity of oil that miraculously lasted eight days until more could be consecrated. John 10:22–39 describes events from Jesus’ life that took place at the Festival of Dedication.

Signs are visible, typically being an object, a mark, an event, or a custom. In addition, signs are symbolic, pointing to things not seen. Signs often reveal or share some quality with the unseen reality to which they point, and so they are a token of that reality. In the Bible, signs typically are caused or instituted by God, and in many cases they are miraculous. However, in a few cases signs are set forth as the work of other gods (as in Deut. 13:12) or as being instituted by merely human design (as in Num. 2:2). In summary, a sign may be defined as something seen that points to something unseen, and that is instituted or created to do so by someone’s intention.

Several examples support this definition. Keeping the Sabbath is a sign of God’s rest after creating the world (Exod. 31:15); the Sabbath rest itself imitates God’s rest. Circumcision is a sign of God’s promise to both Abraham and his descendants; circumcision is also a physical mark that is related to human fertility (Gen. 17:11). The rainbow is a sign of God’s promise not to destroy the world by water and rain; rainbows appear only with rain (Gen. 9:13). (In the original Hebrew text, both the custom of circumcision and the rainbow that appears after the great flood are called “signs.”) The early Passover plagues both bring and warn of judgment, while the healing miracles of Jesus both bring and promise blessing. While signs point to unseen realities, these realities do not diminish the value or importance of the visible world. Instead, the unseen realities themselves are ultimately expressed in the visible world.

Water is mentioned extensively in the Bible due to its prevalence in creation and its association with life and purity. The cosmic waters of Gen. 1 are held back by the sky (Gen. 1:67; cf. Pss. 104:6, 13; 148:4). God is enthroned on these waters in his cosmic temple (Pss. 29:10; 104:3, 13; cf. Gen. 1:2; Ps. 78:69; Isa. 66:1). These same waters were released in the time of Noah (Gen. 7:10–12; Ps. 104:7–9).

Water is also an agent of life and fertility and is therefore associated with the presence of God. Both God himself and his temple are described as the source of life-giving water (Jer. 2:13; 17:13; Joel 3:18; cf. Isa. 12:2–3). Ezekiel envisions this water flowing from beneath the temple and streaming down into the Dead Sea, where it brings life and fecundity (Ezek. 47:1–12; cf. Zech. 14:8). The book of Revelation, employing the same image, describes “the river of the water of life, as clear as crystal, flowing from the throne of God and of the Lamb” (22:1). This imagery is also illustrated in archaeological remains associated with temples. Cisterns are attested beneath the Dome of the Rock (presumably the location of the Jerusalem temple) and beneath the Judahite temple at Arad. Other temples, such as the Israelite high place at Tel Dan, are located close to freshwater springs. The Gihon spring in the City of David may also be associated with the Jerusalem temple (Ps. 46:4; cf. Gen. 2:13).

This OT imagery forms the background for Jesus’ teaching regarding eternal life in the writings of the apostle John. Jesus claims to be the source of living water, and he offers it freely to everyone who thirsts (John 4:10–15; 7:37; Rev. 21:6; 22:17; cf. Rev. 7:17). This water, which produces “a spring of water welling up to eternal life” (John 4:14), is the work of the Holy Spirit in the believer (John 7:38–39).

Water is also described in the Bible as an agent of cleansing. It is extensively employed in purification rituals in the OT. In the NT, the ritual of water baptism signifies the purity and new life of the believer (Matt. 3:11, 16; Mark 1:8–10; Luke 3:16; John 1:26, 31–33; 3:23; Acts 1:5; 8:36–39; 10:47; 11:16; 1Pet. 3:20–21; cf. Eph. 5:26; Heb. 10:22).

Finally, the NT also reveals Jesus as the Lord of water. He walks on water (Matt. 14:28–29; John 6:19), turns water into wine (John 2:7–9; 4:46), and controls water creatures (Matt. 17:27; John 21:6). Most important, Jesus commands “the winds and the water, and they obey him” (Luke 8:25; cf. Ps. 29:3).

In the OT, wisdom is a characteristic of someone who attains a high degree of knowledge, technical skill, and experience in a particular domain. It refers to the ability that certain individuals have to use good judgment in running the affairs of state (Joseph in Gen. 41:33; David in 2Sam. 14:20; Solomon in 1Kings 3:9, 12, 28). It can also refer to the navigational skills that sailors use in maneuvering a ship through difficult waters (Ps. 107:27). Furthermore, wisdom includes the particular skills of an artisan (Exod. 31:6; 35:35; 1Chron. 22:15 16). In all these cases, wisdom involves the expertise that a person acquires to accomplish a particular task. In these instances “wisdom” is an ethically neutral term, or at least that dimension is not emphasized. The wise are those who have mastered a certain skill set in their field of expertise.

The uniqueness of the OT wisdom literature (Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, etc.) is that it highlights the moral dimension of wisdom. Here “wisdom” refers to developing expertise in negotiating the complexities of life and managing those complexities in a morally responsible way that honors God and benefits both the community and the individual. Although it is difficult to pin down a concise definition, one can gain a better understanding of wisdom by investigating two important dimensions: wisdom as a worldview, and the traits of a person who is considered to be wise.

Who is wise? First, the wise are those involved in a lifelong process of character development. They manifest the virtues of righteousness, justice, and equity (Prov. 1:3; 2:9). The embodiment of these virtues culminates in the description of the woman of noble character at the conclusion of Proverbs (31:10–31). She exhibits self-control, patience, care, diligence, discipline, humility, generosity, honesty, and fear of the Lord (cf. James 3:13–18). She is the epitome of wisdom in its maturity and the model that all should emulate.

Second, the wise know the value of words and how to use them. They know when to speak, what to say, and how to say it (Job 29:21–22; Prov. 15:23; 25:11; Eccles. 3:7; 12:9–10). Wisdom and the wise place a premium on the power of words.

Third, the wise place great importance on relationships and on interaction with others. The wise person is the one who is open to the give-and-take of relationships (Prov. 27:5–6, 17, 19). Such a person develops the humility necessary to receive correction and criticism from others. Hearing criticism and changing wrong behavior are integral to wisdom (3:1–11). The wise appreciate insightful criticism because it helps them live life more productively (15:12). Wisdom is, ultimately, relational.

Fourth, the wise person develops the art of discernment (Prov. 1:2, 4–6). The sage is equipped with the ability to think critically. The very quality of wisdom itself invites the re-forming and rethinking of ideas. Sages are not interested in pat answers (26:4–5). Proverbs 16:1–9 throws a wrench in the conventional cogs of wisdom, claiming that although humans make their plans, God has the final say. Both Job and Ecclesiastes go head to head with conventional beliefs, probing more deeply into the complexities of life and the relationship between human and divine. No easy answers exist here. In contrast, fools do not use their mental faculties. They view wisdom as a commodity, a matter of learning some techniques, accepting certain beliefs, and memorizing a few proverbs (17:16). The wise, however, know that wisdom involves the art of critical thinking and interacting with others.

Fifth, and most fundamental, the wise person takes a God-centered focus toward life. Wisdom literature affirms, “The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom” (Prov. 9:10; cf. Prov. 1:7; Job 28:28; Eccles. 12:13). That this is the beginning step in the process of gaining wisdom means that one who misses this step can proceed no further along the path to wisdom. The fear of the Lord is to wisdom as the letters of the alphabet are to forming words. The wise gain wisdom by being in relationship with the Lord (Prov. 3:5–8). The fear of the Lord is the beginning as well as the culmination of wisdom.

Wisdom is a highly prized quality, superior to might and power (Prov. 25:15; Eccles. 9:13–16), and one must diligently seek it (Prov. 2:1–5). Yet in the end, wisdom is a gift that only God can give (Prov. 2:6–8; 1Kings 3:9).

Because Scripture sees all things as providentially arranged and sustained by God’s sovereign power at all times (Heb. 1:3), miracles are not aberrations in an otherwise closed and mechanical universe. Nor are miracles raw demonstrations of divinity designed to overcome prejudice or unbelief and to convince people of the existence of God (Mark 8:11 12). Still less are they clever conjuring tricks involving some kind of deception that can be otherwise explained on a purely scientific basis. Rather, God in his infinite wisdom sometimes does unusual and extraordinary things to call attention to himself and his activity. Miracles are divinely ordained acts of God that dramatically alert us to the presence of his glory and power and advance his saving purposes in redemptive history.

In the OT, miracles are not evenly distributed but rather are found in greater number during times of great redemptive significance, such as the exodus and the conquest of Canaan. Miracles were performed also during periods of apostasy, such as in the days of the ninth-century prophets Elijah and Elisha. Common to both of these eras is the powerful demonstration of the superiority of God over pagan deities (Exod. 7–12; 1Kings 18:20–40).

In the NT, miracles often are acts of compassion, but more significantly they attest the exalted status of Jesus of Nazareth (Acts 2:22) and the saving power of his word (Heb. 2:3–4). In the Synoptic Gospels, they reveal the coming of God’s kingdom and the conquest of Satan’s dominion (Matt. 8:16–17; 12:22–30; Mark 3:27). They point to the person of Jesus as the promised Messiah of OT Scripture (Matt. 4:23; 11:4–6). John shows a preference for the word “signs,” and his Gospel is structured around them (John 20:30–31). According to John, the signs that Jesus performed were such that only the one who stood in a unique relationship to the Father as the Son of God could do them.

Just as entrenched skepticism is injurious to faith, so too is naive credulity, for although signs and wonders witness to God, false prophets also perform them “to deceive, if possible, even the elect” (Matt. 24:24). Christians are to exercise discernment and not be led astray by such impostors (Matt. 7:15–20).

The relationship between miracles and faith is not as straightforward as sometimes supposed. Miracles do not necessarily produce faith, nor does faith necessarily produce miracles. Miracles were intended to bring about the faith that leads to eternal life (John 20:31), but not all who witnessed them believed (John 10:32). Additionally, Jesus regarded a faith that rested only on the miracle itself as precarious (Mark 8:11–13; John 2:23–25; 4:48), though better than no faith at all (John 10:38). Faith that saves must ultimately find its grounding in the person of Jesus as the Son of God.

It is also clear that although Jesus always encouraged faith in those who came to him for help (Mark 9:23), and that he deliberately limited his miraculous powers in the presence of unbelief (Mark 6:5), many of his miracles were performed on those who did not or could not exercise faith (Matt. 12:22; Mark 1:23–28; 5:1–20; Luke 14:1–4).

The fact that Jesus performed miracles was never an issue; rather, his opponents disputed the source of his power (Mark 3:22). Arguments about his identity were to be settled by appeal not to miracles but to the word of God (Matt. 22:41–46).

“Word” is used in the Bible to refer to the speech of God in oral, written, or incarnate form. In each of these uses, God desires to make himself known to his people. The communication of God is always personal and relational, whether he speaks to call things into existence (Gen. 1) or to address an individual directly (Gen. 2:1617; Exod. 3:14). The prophets and the apostles received the word of God (Deut. 18:14–22; John 16:13), some of which was proclaimed but not recorded. The greatest revelation in this regard is the person of Jesus Christ, who is called the “Word” of God (John 1:1, 14).

The psalmist declared God’s word to be an eternal object of hope and trust that gives light and direction (Ps. 119), and Jesus declared the word to be truth (John 17:17). The word is particularized and intimately connected with God himself by means of the key phrases “your word,” “the word of God,” “the word of the Lord,” “word about Christ,” and “the word of Christ” (Rom. 10:17; Col. 3:16). Our understanding of the word is informed by a variety of terms and contexts in the canon of Scripture, a collection of which is found in Ps. 119.

The theme of the word in Ps. 119 is continued and clarified in the NT, accentuating the intimate connection between the word of God and God himself. The “Word” of God is the eternal Lord Jesus Christ (John 1:1; 1John 1:1–4), who took on flesh and blood so that we might see the glory of the eternal God. The sovereign glory of Christ as the Word of God is depicted in the vision of John in Rev. 19:13. As the Word of God, Jesus Christ ultimately gives us our lives (John 1:4; 6:33; 10:10), sustains our lives (John 5:24; 6:51, 54; 8:51), and ultimately renders a just judgment regarding our lives (John 5:30; 8:16, 26; 9:39; cf. Matt. 25:31–33; Heb. 4:12).

The precise and consistent division of time into hours,minutes, and seconds is a feature of modern life first made possibleby the widespread use of mechanical clocks in the late Middle Ages.Biblical texts reflect an earlier situation in which timekeeping wasprimarily a matter of celestial observation. NT references to “hours”fall into two broad categories: first, timekeeping by means ofnumbered hours; and second, the use of the word “hour” inthe sense of “moment,” a short, indefinite period of time(e.g., Matt. 8:13; John 16:2), as the hour was the basic unit ofmeasurable time (see Rev. 9:15).

Jesusobserved that the day was divided into twelve hours (John 11:9).Jesus was crucified at the third hour (9a.m.); it was dark fromthe sixth hour (noon) until the ninth hour (3p.m.), at whichpoint Jesus died (Matt. 27:45–46; Mark 15:25, 33; Luke 23:44;John 19:14). In one parable, a landowner hired workers at the third,sixth, ninth, and eleventh hours (Matt. 20:3–12). The book ofActs also reports events occurring at the third, sixth, and ninthhours (Acts 2:15; 3:1; 10:3, 9). Such passages suggest that actualreckoning was often less precise even than the twelve-hour schemepermitted, and that the day was more roughly divided into four partsof three hours each. The Gospel of John provides the most precisetime indications, mentioning the tenth hour (4p.m. [John 1:39])and the seventh hour (1p.m. [John 4:52]). One text names an“hour of dinner” (Luke 14:17; see also 22:14), andanother indicates that the ninth hour (3p.m.) was an “hourof prayer” (Acts 3:1; see also 10:30).

Thenight was divided into three or four “watches,” of whichthe NT mentions the second, third (Luke 12:38), and fourth (Matt.14:25; Mark 6:48). The OT mentions nocturnal watches (Pss. 63:6;90:4; 119:148; Lam. 2:19), including in military contexts (Exod.14:24; Judg. 7:19; 1Sam. 11:11), from which the term with thesense of standing guard is derived. The OT watches are not numbered,but are referred to as “middle” or “last.”The system of watches did not preclude the counting of hours duringthe night, as in Acts 23:23, which refers to the third hour of thenight (9p.m.).

Inaddition to the numbered hours of the day, the hour is also used tomeasure the passage of time, as in Acts 19:34, where a crowd riotsfor two hours (see also Matt. 26:40; Luke 22:59; Acts 5:7; Rev.17:12). One text refers to a half-hour period (Rev. 8:1).

Numeroustexts refer to hours of future trial (Matt. 10:19; Rev. 3:10),including an eschatological or “last hour” (e.g., Mark13:32; 1John 2:18). The suffering and death of Jesus is alsoreferred to as his “hour” (e.g., Mark 14:35; 14:41; John12:23, 27).

Because Scripture sees all things as providentially arrangedand sustained by God’s sovereign power at all times (Heb. 1:3),miracles are not aberrations in an otherwise closed and mechanicaluniverse. Nor are miracles raw demonstrations of divinity designed toovercome prejudice or unbelief and to convince people of theexistence of God (Mark 8:11–12). Still less are they cleverconjuring tricks involving some kind of deception that can beotherwise explained on a purely scientific basis. Rather, God in hisinfinite wisdom sometimes does unusual and extraordinary things tocall attention to himself and his activity. Miracles are divinelyordained acts of God that dramatically alert us to the presence ofhis glory and power and advance his saving purposes in redemptivehistory.

Terminology

Thebiblical writers describe miracles with various terms, such as“signs,” “wonders,” and “miracles”(or “powers”), which can carry various connotations. Asthe word “sign” suggests, divine miracles are significantand should cause us to think more deeply about God in a way that goesbeyond mere amazement or curiosity (Exod. 4:30–31; John 2:11).Not all of God’s signs are miraculous. Some are given as partof his ordering of the natural world (Gen. 1:14) or as anencouragement to faith that God will do as he has said (e.g., therainbow in Gen. 9:8–17; the blood of the Passover lamb in Exod.12:13). (See also Sign.)

Oftencoupled with signs are “wonders” (Jer. 32:21; John 4:48;2Cor. 12:12). If the depiction of miracles as “signs”indicates an appeal to the intellect, that of “wonders”points to the emotions. Miracles evoke astonishment and awe at theone who did them.

TheNT word “miracle” carries the meaning of power andtherefore points to the supernatural source of these events (Luke10:13; Acts 8:13).

Miraclesin the Bible

OldTestament.In the OT, miracles are not evenly distributed but rather are foundin greater number during times of great redemptive significance, suchas the exodus and the conquest of Canaan. Miracles were performedalso during periods of apostasy, such as in the days of theninth-century prophets Elijah and Elisha. Common to both of theseeras is the powerful demonstration of the superiority of God overpagan deities (Exod. 7–12; 1Kings 18:20–40).

NewTestament. Inthe NT, miracles often are acts of compassion, but more significantlythey attest the exalted status of Jesus of Nazareth (Acts 2:22) andthe saving power of his word (Heb. 2:3–4). In the SynopticGospels, they reveal the coming of God’s kingdom and theconquest of Satan’s dominion (Matt. 8:16–17; 12:22–30;Mark 3:27). They point to the person of Jesus as the promised Messiahof OT Scripture (Matt. 4:23; 11:4–6). John shows a preferencefor the word “signs,” and his Gospel is structured aroundthem (John 20:30–31). According to John, the signs that Jesusperformed were such that only the one who stood in a uniquerelationship to the Father as the Son of God could do them.

Miraclesand faith.Just as entrenched skepticism is injurious to faith, so too is naivecredulity, for although signs and wonders witness to God, falseprophets also perform them “to deceive, if possible, even theelect” (Matt. 24:24). Christians are to exercise discernmentand not be led astray by such impostors (Matt. 7:15–20).

Therelationship between miracles and faith is not as straightforward assometimes supposed. Miracles do not necessarily produce faith, nordoes faith necessarily produce miracles. Miracles were intended tobring about the faith that leads to eternal life (John 20:31), butnot all who witnessed them believed (John 10:32). Additionally, Jesusregarded a faith that rested only on the miracle itself as precarious(Mark 8:11–13; John 2:23–25; 4:48), though better than nofaith at all (John 10:38). Faith that saves must ultimately find itsgrounding in the person of Jesus as the Son of God.

Itis also clear that although Jesus always encouraged faith in thosewho came to him for help (Mark 9:23), and that he deliberatelylimited his miraculous powers in the presence of unbelief (Mark 6:5),many of his miracles were performed on those who did not or could notexercise faith (Matt. 12:22; Mark 1:23–28; 5:1–20; Luke14:1–4).

Thefact that Jesus performed miracles was never an issue; rather, hisopponents disputed the source of his power (Mark 3:22). Argumentsabout his identity were to be settled by appeal not to miracles butto the word of God (Matt. 22:41–46).

Thefunction of miracles.Miracle accounts function in a symbolic and prophetic manner. Hence,the cursing of the fig tree was prophetic of the coming judgment(Mark 11:12–21). The unusual two-stage healing of the blind manof Bethsaida symbolized Peter’s incomplete understanding ofJesus’ messiahship (Mark 8:22–33).

Themiraculous element of Jesus’ ministry carries an eschatologicalsignificance, pointing to the order of things in the age to come. Forexample, the nature miracles (Mark 4:35–41) look forward to theredemption of creation itself, which is presently subject tofrustration and decay (Rom. 8:20–21); the healing miraclespoint to a day when disease and deformity will be abolished (Rev.21:4); and miracles in which the dead are raised to life anticipate atime when death itself will be no more (Rev. 20:14; 21:4). From thisperspective, the miracles are a gracious foretaste of a far moreglorious future.

(Disabilities; Disability; Deformity; Deformities; Sickness]The Bible often speaks of health, healing, disease, andillness. Good health was a sign of God’s favor, and healing wasalso the work of God and his divinely empowered agents. These agentsincluded the prophets (1Kings 17:8–23; 2Kings5:1–15), the apostles (Acts 3:1–10), and the messiah(Mal. 4:2). The divine prerogative of Jesus was to heal (Mark 1:32;6:56; Matt. 4:23; 8:16; 15:30; 21:14; Luke 6:10, 17–19), andmiraculous healings were a sign of his messianic office (Luke7:20–23). Disease, on the other hand, was regarded as a sign ofGod’s disfavor. Within a covenantal context, God could senddisease to punish the sinner (Exod. 4:11; 32:35).

TheBible assigns a wide variety of names to various diseases and theirsymptoms. These terms are nontechnical and generally descriptive.Some are uncertain in meaning. In most cases they describe thesymptoms of the disease, not the disease itself. Diagnosis often wasbased on incomplete observation and nonclinical examination. TheBible also presupposes supernatural intervention in the life of aperson. Healing occurred when God’s agents touched individuals,cast out demons, and resurrected the dead.

AncientNear Eastern Influences

Inthe ancient Near East the knowledge of disease and medicine wasprecritical. Bacteria and viruses were virtually unknown.Mesopotamian literature contains many references to medicine,physicians, and medical practice. Minerals, salts, herbs, and otherbotanicals were used to make up treatments. Babylonian physiciansalso administered prescriptions accompanied by incantations. Diseasewas considered to be the result of a violation of a taboo orpossession by a demon. The Code of Hammurabi (1750 BC) includes lawsregulating the practice of medicine and surgery by physicians. InEgypt medicine and healing were connected to the gods. Tomb paintingsand several papyrus documents describe the developing state ofEgyptian medicine, pharmacy, and surgery.

Greekphysicians admired and sought to learn the skills of the Egyptians.However, the early Greek doctor Hippocrates (460–370 BC),called the “Father of Medicine,” is credited with beingthe first physician to reject the belief that supernatural or divineforces cause illness. He argued that disease is the result ofenvironmental factors, diet, and living habits, not a punishmentimposed by the gods.

Itis clear that the biblical world shared with the ancient Near Eastthe same types of maladies common to tropical or subtropicalclimates. These include malaria, tropical fevers, dysentery, andsunstroke. The tendency of the hot climate to produce frequentdroughts and famine certainly contributed to similar types ofdiseases throughout the Fertile Crescent. Additionally, it must beremembered that Palestine was a land bridge between the Mesopotamianand Egyptian worlds. Migrations carry not only goods and products,but also parasites, communicable disease, and epidemics.

BiblicalConcept of Disease

Thereligious tradition of the Hebrews repudiated the magical or demonicorigin of disease. Hence, moral, ethical, and spiritual factorsregulated disease and illness. This was true for the individual aswell as the community. The Hebrews, like the Egyptians, alsorecognized that much sickness arose from the individual’srelationship to the physical environment. Great stress was placed onhygiene and preventive medicine.

Pentateuchallegislation offered seven covenantal principles designed to preventthe possibility of disease and sickness: (1)Sabbath observancefor humans, animals, and the land, which enforced regular periods ofrest (Gen. 2:3); (2)dietary regulations, which divided foodinto efficient categories of clean and unclean (Lev. 11);(3)circumcision, which carried physical benefits as well asreligious and moral implications (Gen. 17:9; circumcision is the onlyexample of Hebrew surgery); (4)laws governing sexualrelationships and health, including a list of forbidden degrees ofmarital relationships (Lev. 18–20); (5)provisions forindividual sexual hygiene (Lev. 15); (6)stipulations forcleanliness and bodily purification (Lev. 14:2; 15:2); (7) sanitaryand hygienic regulations for camp life (Num. 31:19; Deut. 23:12).

InNT times magical charms and incantations were used along with folkremedies in an effort to cure disease. Jesus repudiated these means.He also suggested that sickness and disease were not directpunishments for sin (John 9:2). In the Sermon on the Mount (Matt.5–7), Jesus confirmed that the ethical and religious standardsof the new covenant promoted the total health of the community andthe individual.

CirculatoryDiseases

Nabalmost likely suffered a cerebrovascular accident or stroke (1Sam.25:36–38). After a heavy bout of drinking, his heart “died”(KJV; NIV: “failed”), and he became paralyzed, lapsedinto a coma, and died ten days later. Psalm 137:5–6 may containa clinical example of the symptoms of stroke. The psalmist wrote, “IfI forget you, Jerusalem, may my right hand forget its skill. May mytongue cling to the roof of my mouth if I do not remember you.”This description points to a paralysis of the right side of the body(right hemiplegia) and the loss of speech (motor aphasia) that resultfrom a stroke on the left side of the brain. Basically, the exiledpsalmist is wishing upon himself the effects of a stroke if he heldanything other than Jerusalem as his highest priority. Some haveconsidered the collapse of Uzzah when he reached out to stabilize theark of the covenant (2Sam. 6:6–7) to be the consequenceof an apoplectic seizure. But since no actual paralysis was describedand death occurred immediately, this seems unlikely. It is moreprobable that God struck him down with an aortic aneurism or acoronary thrombosis.

Paralysis

Apossible case of paralysis may be described in the shriveled(atrophic) hand of JeroboamI (1Kings 13:4–6). In anangry outburst Jeroboam ordered the arrest of a prophet who condemnedthe altar at Bethel. When Jeroboam stretched out his hand, it“shriveled up, so that he could not pull it back.”Several complicated diagnoses have been offered to explain the“withered” hand, but it is possibly an example ofcataplexy, a sudden loss of muscle power following a strong emotionalstimulus. After intercession by the man of God, and the subsiding ofthe emotional outburst, the arm was restored.

Thethreat against the faithless shepherd of God’s people (Zech.11:17), which included a withered arm and blindness in the right eye,may refer to a form of paralysis known as tabes dorsalis, orlocomotor ataxia. Knifelike pains in the extremities and blindnesscharacterize this disease.

Paralysisis frequently mentioned in the NT (Matt. 8:6; 9:2, 6; 12:10; Mark2:3–5, 9, 10; 3:1, 3, 5; Luke 5:18, 24; 6:6; John 5:3; Acts9:33; Heb. 12:12). The exact diagnosis for each of these casesremains uncertain.

Thephysician Luke’s use of the Greek medical term paralelymenos(Luke 5:18, 24) suggests that some of these cases were caused bychronic organic disease. Others clearly were congenital (Acts 3:2;cf. 14:8). It is not necessary to rationalize the origin of theseexamples of paralysis as hysteria or pretense. The NT writersregarded the healing of these individuals by Jesus and the apostlesas miraculous.

MentalIllness and Brain Disorders

Casesof mental disease are generally described in the Bible by noting thesymptoms produced by the disorder. The particular cause of a mentalillness in the NT is often blamed on an unknown evil spirit orspirits (Luke 8:2). Such spirits, however, were subject to God’scontrol and operated only within the boundaries allowed by him(1Sam. 16:14–16, 23; 18:10; 19:9). Accordingly, in the OT“madness” and “confusion of mind” wereregarded as consequences of covenantal disobedience (Deut. 28:28,34).

Ithas been argued that King Saul displayed early indications ofpersonality disorder. Symptoms included pride, self-aggrandizement(1Sam. 11:6; 13:12; 15:9, 19), and ecstatic behavior(10:11–12). A rapid deterioration in Saul’s charactertranspired after David was anointed and became more popular (16:14;18:10–11). Since Saul demonstrated fear, jealousy, a sense ofpersecution, and homicidal tendencies, some scholars argue that hesuffered from paranoid schizophrenia.

Nebuchadnezzarsuffered a rare form of monomania in which he lived like a wild beastin the field eating grass (Dan. 4:33). David, in order to save hisown life, feigned insanity or perhaps epilepsy before the Philistineking Achish (1Sam. 21:12–15).

Inthe NT, individuals with mental disorders went about naked, mutilatedthemselves, lived in tombs (Mark 5:2), and exhibited violent behavior(Matt. 8:28). Such mental disorientation was often linked to demonpossession. Examples include the Syrophoenician’s child (Matt.15:22; Mark 7:25), the demoniacs at Gerasa (Matt. 8:28; Mark 5:2;Luke 8:27) and Capernaum (Mark 1:23; Luke 4:33), a blind and mutedemoniac (Matt. 12:22; Luke 11:14), and a fortune-telling slave girl(Acts 16:16). While such behavior is clinically suggestive ofparanoid schizophrenia or other mental disorders, themind-controlling influence of some extraneous negative force cannotbe ruled out.

Epilepsy(grand mal) causes the afflicted person to fall to the ground, foamat the mouth, and clench or grind the teeth (Matt. 17:15; Mark9:17–18; Luke 9:39). The description of Saul falling to theground in an ecstatic state (1Sam. 19:23–24) and Balaamfalling with open eyes may be indicative of an epileptic seizure. Inthe NT, Jesus healed many who suffered from epilepsy (Matt. 4:24;17:14–18; Mark 9:17–18; Luke 9:38–42). Somescholars have linked the light seen by Paul on the road to Damascuswith the aura that some epileptics experience prior to a seizure. Hissubsequent blindness has also been attributed to the epilepticdisturbance of the circulation of the blood in the brain.

ChildhoodDiseases

Thecause of the death of the widow’s son at Zarephath is unknown(1Kings 17:17–22). The death of the Shunammite woman’sson has been attributed to sunstroke (2Kings 4:18–37),although a headache is the only symptom recorded (v.19). Inboth cases there is too little evidence to present an accuratediagnosis.

Inthe first case, the boy at Zarephath stopped breathing (1Kings17:17). This may leave the door open to argue that Elijahresuscitated the child. However, in the second case, the text clearlystates that the Shunammite boy died (2Kings 4:20), implying aresurrection.

Infectiousand Communicable Diseases

Feverand other calamities are listed among the punishments for covenantalinfidelity (Deut. 28:22). Three different types of fever may beintentionally described here: “fever,” “inflammation,”and “scorching heat” (ESV: “fiery heat”).Fever is also mentioned frequently in the NT (Matt. 8:15; Mark1:30–31; Luke 4:38–39; John 4:52; Acts 28:8). Both Jesusand Paul healed individuals who had a fever. A number of these feverswere likely caused by malaria, since the disease was known to beendemic to the Jordan Valley and other marshy areas in Palestine.

Severalepidemics in which numerous people died of pestilence or plague arementioned in the OT (Exod. 11:1; 12:13; Num. 14:37; Zech. 14:12). Thefifth plague of Egypt (Exod. 9:3–6) has been attributed toJordan Rift Valley fever, which is spread by flies. Bubonic plaguehas been blamed for the malady that struck the Philistines (1Sam.5–6). However, it may have been the result of a severe form oftropical dysentery. Acute bacillary dysentery contracted in themilitary camp may also have been responsible for the epidemic thatkilled a large number of the Assyrian army (2Kings 19:35).

ParasiticDiseases

Somescholars have repeatedly argued that the “fiery serpents”(NIV: “venomous snakes”) encountered by Moses and thechildren of Israel (Num. 21:6–9) were in reality an infestationof the parasitic guinea worm (Dracunculus medinensis). Microscopicfleas ingested in drinking water carry the larvae of this slendernematode into the body. The larvae move from the digestive tract tothe skin. The adult worm, which may grow to a length of several feet,discharges its eggs into an ulcer on the skin. Death of the hostoccurs because of the resulting infection of the skin ulcers.

Afterthe conquest of Jericho, Joshua cursed the individual who wouldendeavor to rebuild the city (Josh. 6:26). Later, Hiel of Bethelattempted to rebuild the city and lost two of his sons as a result ofthe curse (1Kings 16:34). Elisha was then asked to purify thebad water at Jericho in order to allow a new settlement (2Kings2:19). Elisha obliged by throwing salt into the spring and therebymaking the water potable (2:20–22). Recent archaeological studyhas discovered the remains of certain snails in the mud-bricks usedto construct Jericho in the Bronze Age. These types of snails are nowknown to serve as intermediate hosts for the flatworm parasite thatcan cause schistosomiasis. The Schistosoma haematobium trematodeinfects the urinary tract and the bladder. It is possible that thistype of parasite was responsible for the death of Hiel’s twosons.

InNT times, Herod Agrippa apparently died of the complications of aparasitic disease, perhaps being infested by the larvae of flies(myiasis) in the bowels. Luke mentions that he was “eaten byworms” (skōlēkobrōtos [Acts 12:23]). The fatherof Publius also suffered from dysentery (Acts 28:8).

PhysicalDeformities and Abnormalities

Individualswith deformities were disqualified from priestly service (Lev.21:18–20). The list included lameness, limb damage, anddwarfism. The deformities mentioned here might have been congenitalor acquired. Mephibosheth was dropped by his nurse (2 Sam. 4:4) andperhaps suffered damage to the spinal cord. Jacob possibly sustainedinjury to an intervertebral disk (Gen. 32:32) causing a deformity anda limp. The woman who was “bent over” (Luke 13:10–17)might have suffered from an abnormality of the spine similar toscoliosis. It is difficult to ascertain the origin of the “shriveledhand” of the unnamed individual healed by Jesus (Matt.12:10–13; Mark 3:1–5; Luke 6:6–10). It could becongenital in character or a paralysis caused by any number offactors.

Diseasesand Disabilities of the Eyes and Ears

Physicalblindness is mentioned several times in the Bible. Blindness excludedone from serving as a priest (Lev. 21:18, 20). Blindness anddeafness, however, were disabilities requiring special care from thecommunity (Lev. 19:14; Deut. 27:18). The “weak eyes” ofLeah may refer to an eye condition (Gen. 29:17).

Blindnessin the biblical world was caused by various factors. Leviticus 26:16speaks of a fever that destroys the eyes. Flies probably wereresponsible for much of the conjunctivitis found in children. John9:1 mentions congenital blindness, which Jesus cured using mud madefrom spittle and dirt (John 9:6). In Mark 8:22–26 Jesus healeda blind man by spitting in his eye and laying hands on him (cf. Matt.20:34 with Mark10:52).

Congenitaldeafness would also be associated with mutism and speech defectsbecause a child learning to speak depends on imitation and mimicry.Jesus healed a man who was deaf and could barely talk (Mark 7:32–37).The man’s inability to say much possibly pointed to a loss ofhearing early in life.

SkinConditions

Variousskin and hair abnormalities are described in the Bible. Some made theindividual unclean (Lev. 13:30; 14:54). The OT speaks of “theboils of Egypt” (Deut. 28:27; cf. Exod. 9:9). Skin ailmentsincluded tumors, festering sores, boils, infections, and the itch(Deut. 28:27, 35; Isa. 3:7). Job complained of a litany of ailments:broken and festering skin (7:5), multiple wounds (9:17), blackpeeling skin and fever (30:30), gnawing bone pain (2:5; 19:20;30:17), insomnia (7:3–4), and wasting away (33:21). Thesesymptoms have been diagnosed as indications of yaws or eczema. Apoultice made of figs cured Hezekiah’s boil (2Kings20:7).

Leprosywas once thought to be a common problem in the biblical world.Leprosy (Hansen’s disease) is a slow, progressive chronicinfectious disease caused by a bacterium. Symptoms include loss ofsensation and loss of parts of the body. Evidence for this type ofdisease in Palestine is rare. Uzziah may have had a true case ofHansen’s disease. He was quarantined until the day he died(2Chron. 26:21).

Scholarsnow suggest that the symptoms of the disease described in the Bibledo not fit this pattern and thus do not signify leprosy (Hansen’sdisease) as it is known today. Instead, the word that Englishversions translate as “leprosy” (Heb. root tsr’)probably refers to different types of infectious skin disease, oftencharacterized by a long-standing, patchy skin condition associatedwith peeling or flakiness and redness of skin. Evidence points moretoward psoriasis, fungal infections, or dermatitis.

Thisdisease could appear in humans (Lev. 14:2), on buildings (14:34), andon clothing (14:55). It was not limited to the extremities but couldoccur on the head (14:42–44). It could run its course quickly(13:5–8). It made the individual ceremonially unclean, but itwas also curable (Lev. 14:3; 2Kings 5:1–27). Individualswith the disease were not necessarily shunned (2Kings 7; Matt.26:6// Mark 14:3). Moses (Exod. 4:6), Miriam (Num. 12:10), andNaaman experienced this type of skin disease (2Kings 5:1–27).Jesus healed many suffering from skin ailments (Matt. 8:2–3;Mark 1:40–42; Luke 5:12–13), including the ten “menwho had leprosy” (Luke 17:12–14).

Ailmentsof an Unknown Nature

Somecases in the Bible present insufficient evidence for scholars torender a clear diagnosis. King Asa suffered a disease in his feet(2Chron. 16:12). However, in the OT the Hebrew expression for“feet” is sometimes used euphemistically for the sexualorgans (Judg. 3:24 KJV). Because of this, the exact nature of thedisease is ambiguous. Jehoram was afflicted with “an incurabledisease of the bowels” (2Chron. 21:18–19). Otherunknown ailments factor in the deaths of the firstborn son of Davidand Bathsheba (2Sam. 12:15), of Jeroboam’s son in infancy(1Kings 14:17), of Elisha (2Kings 13:14), and ofEzekiel’s wife (Ezek. 24:16).

(Disabilities; Disability; Deformity; Deformities; Sickness]The Bible often speaks of health, healing, disease, andillness. Good health was a sign of God’s favor, and healing wasalso the work of God and his divinely empowered agents. These agentsincluded the prophets (1Kings 17:8–23; 2Kings5:1–15), the apostles (Acts 3:1–10), and the messiah(Mal. 4:2). The divine prerogative of Jesus was to heal (Mark 1:32;6:56; Matt. 4:23; 8:16; 15:30; 21:14; Luke 6:10, 17–19), andmiraculous healings were a sign of his messianic office (Luke7:20–23). Disease, on the other hand, was regarded as a sign ofGod’s disfavor. Within a covenantal context, God could senddisease to punish the sinner (Exod. 4:11; 32:35).

TheBible assigns a wide variety of names to various diseases and theirsymptoms. These terms are nontechnical and generally descriptive.Some are uncertain in meaning. In most cases they describe thesymptoms of the disease, not the disease itself. Diagnosis often wasbased on incomplete observation and nonclinical examination. TheBible also presupposes supernatural intervention in the life of aperson. Healing occurred when God’s agents touched individuals,cast out demons, and resurrected the dead.

AncientNear Eastern Influences

Inthe ancient Near East the knowledge of disease and medicine wasprecritical. Bacteria and viruses were virtually unknown.Mesopotamian literature contains many references to medicine,physicians, and medical practice. Minerals, salts, herbs, and otherbotanicals were used to make up treatments. Babylonian physiciansalso administered prescriptions accompanied by incantations. Diseasewas considered to be the result of a violation of a taboo orpossession by a demon. The Code of Hammurabi (1750 BC) includes lawsregulating the practice of medicine and surgery by physicians. InEgypt medicine and healing were connected to the gods. Tomb paintingsand several papyrus documents describe the developing state ofEgyptian medicine, pharmacy, and surgery.

Greekphysicians admired and sought to learn the skills of the Egyptians.However, the early Greek doctor Hippocrates (460–370 BC),called the “Father of Medicine,” is credited with beingthe first physician to reject the belief that supernatural or divineforces cause illness. He argued that disease is the result ofenvironmental factors, diet, and living habits, not a punishmentimposed by the gods.

Itis clear that the biblical world shared with the ancient Near Eastthe same types of maladies common to tropical or subtropicalclimates. These include malaria, tropical fevers, dysentery, andsunstroke. The tendency of the hot climate to produce frequentdroughts and famine certainly contributed to similar types ofdiseases throughout the Fertile Crescent. Additionally, it must beremembered that Palestine was a land bridge between the Mesopotamianand Egyptian worlds. Migrations carry not only goods and products,but also parasites, communicable disease, and epidemics.

BiblicalConcept of Disease

Thereligious tradition of the Hebrews repudiated the magical or demonicorigin of disease. Hence, moral, ethical, and spiritual factorsregulated disease and illness. This was true for the individual aswell as the community. The Hebrews, like the Egyptians, alsorecognized that much sickness arose from the individual’srelationship to the physical environment. Great stress was placed onhygiene and preventive medicine.

Pentateuchallegislation offered seven covenantal principles designed to preventthe possibility of disease and sickness: (1)Sabbath observancefor humans, animals, and the land, which enforced regular periods ofrest (Gen. 2:3); (2)dietary regulations, which divided foodinto efficient categories of clean and unclean (Lev. 11);(3)circumcision, which carried physical benefits as well asreligious and moral implications (Gen. 17:9; circumcision is the onlyexample of Hebrew surgery); (4)laws governing sexualrelationships and health, including a list of forbidden degrees ofmarital relationships (Lev. 18–20); (5)provisions forindividual sexual hygiene (Lev. 15); (6)stipulations forcleanliness and bodily purification (Lev. 14:2; 15:2); (7) sanitaryand hygienic regulations for camp life (Num. 31:19; Deut. 23:12).

InNT times magical charms and incantations were used along with folkremedies in an effort to cure disease. Jesus repudiated these means.He also suggested that sickness and disease were not directpunishments for sin (John 9:2). In the Sermon on the Mount (Matt.5–7), Jesus confirmed that the ethical and religious standardsof the new covenant promoted the total health of the community andthe individual.

CirculatoryDiseases

Nabalmost likely suffered a cerebrovascular accident or stroke (1Sam.25:36–38). After a heavy bout of drinking, his heart “died”(KJV; NIV: “failed”), and he became paralyzed, lapsedinto a coma, and died ten days later. Psalm 137:5–6 may containa clinical example of the symptoms of stroke. The psalmist wrote, “IfI forget you, Jerusalem, may my right hand forget its skill. May mytongue cling to the roof of my mouth if I do not remember you.”This description points to a paralysis of the right side of the body(right hemiplegia) and the loss of speech (motor aphasia) that resultfrom a stroke on the left side of the brain. Basically, the exiledpsalmist is wishing upon himself the effects of a stroke if he heldanything other than Jerusalem as his highest priority. Some haveconsidered the collapse of Uzzah when he reached out to stabilize theark of the covenant (2Sam. 6:6–7) to be the consequenceof an apoplectic seizure. But since no actual paralysis was describedand death occurred immediately, this seems unlikely. It is moreprobable that God struck him down with an aortic aneurism or acoronary thrombosis.

Paralysis

Apossible case of paralysis may be described in the shriveled(atrophic) hand of JeroboamI (1Kings 13:4–6). In anangry outburst Jeroboam ordered the arrest of a prophet who condemnedthe altar at Bethel. When Jeroboam stretched out his hand, it“shriveled up, so that he could not pull it back.”Several complicated diagnoses have been offered to explain the“withered” hand, but it is possibly an example ofcataplexy, a sudden loss of muscle power following a strong emotionalstimulus. After intercession by the man of God, and the subsiding ofthe emotional outburst, the arm was restored.

Thethreat against the faithless shepherd of God’s people (Zech.11:17), which included a withered arm and blindness in the right eye,may refer to a form of paralysis known as tabes dorsalis, orlocomotor ataxia. Knifelike pains in the extremities and blindnesscharacterize this disease.

Paralysisis frequently mentioned in the NT (Matt. 8:6; 9:2, 6; 12:10; Mark2:3–5, 9, 10; 3:1, 3, 5; Luke 5:18, 24; 6:6; John 5:3; Acts9:33; Heb. 12:12). The exact diagnosis for each of these casesremains uncertain.

Thephysician Luke’s use of the Greek medical term paralelymenos(Luke 5:18, 24) suggests that some of these cases were caused bychronic organic disease. Others clearly were congenital (Acts 3:2;cf. 14:8). It is not necessary to rationalize the origin of theseexamples of paralysis as hysteria or pretense. The NT writersregarded the healing of these individuals by Jesus and the apostlesas miraculous.

MentalIllness and Brain Disorders

Casesof mental disease are generally described in the Bible by noting thesymptoms produced by the disorder. The particular cause of a mentalillness in the NT is often blamed on an unknown evil spirit orspirits (Luke 8:2). Such spirits, however, were subject to God’scontrol and operated only within the boundaries allowed by him(1Sam. 16:14–16, 23; 18:10; 19:9). Accordingly, in the OT“madness” and “confusion of mind” wereregarded as consequences of covenantal disobedience (Deut. 28:28,34).

Ithas been argued that King Saul displayed early indications ofpersonality disorder. Symptoms included pride, self-aggrandizement(1Sam. 11:6; 13:12; 15:9, 19), and ecstatic behavior(10:11–12). A rapid deterioration in Saul’s charactertranspired after David was anointed and became more popular (16:14;18:10–11). Since Saul demonstrated fear, jealousy, a sense ofpersecution, and homicidal tendencies, some scholars argue that hesuffered from paranoid schizophrenia.

Nebuchadnezzarsuffered a rare form of monomania in which he lived like a wild beastin the field eating grass (Dan. 4:33). David, in order to save hisown life, feigned insanity or perhaps epilepsy before the Philistineking Achish (1Sam. 21:12–15).

Inthe NT, individuals with mental disorders went about naked, mutilatedthemselves, lived in tombs (Mark 5:2), and exhibited violent behavior(Matt. 8:28). Such mental disorientation was often linked to demonpossession. Examples include the Syrophoenician’s child (Matt.15:22; Mark 7:25), the demoniacs at Gerasa (Matt. 8:28; Mark 5:2;Luke 8:27) and Capernaum (Mark 1:23; Luke 4:33), a blind and mutedemoniac (Matt. 12:22; Luke 11:14), and a fortune-telling slave girl(Acts 16:16). While such behavior is clinically suggestive ofparanoid schizophrenia or other mental disorders, themind-controlling influence of some extraneous negative force cannotbe ruled out.

Epilepsy(grand mal) causes the afflicted person to fall to the ground, foamat the mouth, and clench or grind the teeth (Matt. 17:15; Mark9:17–18; Luke 9:39). The description of Saul falling to theground in an ecstatic state (1Sam. 19:23–24) and Balaamfalling with open eyes may be indicative of an epileptic seizure. Inthe NT, Jesus healed many who suffered from epilepsy (Matt. 4:24;17:14–18; Mark 9:17–18; Luke 9:38–42). Somescholars have linked the light seen by Paul on the road to Damascuswith the aura that some epileptics experience prior to a seizure. Hissubsequent blindness has also been attributed to the epilepticdisturbance of the circulation of the blood in the brain.

ChildhoodDiseases

Thecause of the death of the widow’s son at Zarephath is unknown(1Kings 17:17–22). The death of the Shunammite woman’sson has been attributed to sunstroke (2Kings 4:18–37),although a headache is the only symptom recorded (v.19). Inboth cases there is too little evidence to present an accuratediagnosis.

Inthe first case, the boy at Zarephath stopped breathing (1Kings17:17). This may leave the door open to argue that Elijahresuscitated the child. However, in the second case, the text clearlystates that the Shunammite boy died (2Kings 4:20), implying aresurrection.

Infectiousand Communicable Diseases

Feverand other calamities are listed among the punishments for covenantalinfidelity (Deut. 28:22). Three different types of fever may beintentionally described here: “fever,” “inflammation,”and “scorching heat” (ESV: “fiery heat”).Fever is also mentioned frequently in the NT (Matt. 8:15; Mark1:30–31; Luke 4:38–39; John 4:52; Acts 28:8). Both Jesusand Paul healed individuals who had a fever. A number of these feverswere likely caused by malaria, since the disease was known to beendemic to the Jordan Valley and other marshy areas in Palestine.

Severalepidemics in which numerous people died of pestilence or plague arementioned in the OT (Exod. 11:1; 12:13; Num. 14:37; Zech. 14:12). Thefifth plague of Egypt (Exod. 9:3–6) has been attributed toJordan Rift Valley fever, which is spread by flies. Bubonic plaguehas been blamed for the malady that struck the Philistines (1Sam.5–6). However, it may have been the result of a severe form oftropical dysentery. Acute bacillary dysentery contracted in themilitary camp may also have been responsible for the epidemic thatkilled a large number of the Assyrian army (2Kings 19:35).

ParasiticDiseases

Somescholars have repeatedly argued that the “fiery serpents”(NIV: “venomous snakes”) encountered by Moses and thechildren of Israel (Num. 21:6–9) were in reality an infestationof the parasitic guinea worm (Dracunculus medinensis). Microscopicfleas ingested in drinking water carry the larvae of this slendernematode into the body. The larvae move from the digestive tract tothe skin. The adult worm, which may grow to a length of several feet,discharges its eggs into an ulcer on the skin. Death of the hostoccurs because of the resulting infection of the skin ulcers.

Afterthe conquest of Jericho, Joshua cursed the individual who wouldendeavor to rebuild the city (Josh. 6:26). Later, Hiel of Bethelattempted to rebuild the city and lost two of his sons as a result ofthe curse (1Kings 16:34). Elisha was then asked to purify thebad water at Jericho in order to allow a new settlement (2Kings2:19). Elisha obliged by throwing salt into the spring and therebymaking the water potable (2:20–22). Recent archaeological studyhas discovered the remains of certain snails in the mud-bricks usedto construct Jericho in the Bronze Age. These types of snails are nowknown to serve as intermediate hosts for the flatworm parasite thatcan cause schistosomiasis. The Schistosoma haematobium trematodeinfects the urinary tract and the bladder. It is possible that thistype of parasite was responsible for the death of Hiel’s twosons.

InNT times, Herod Agrippa apparently died of the complications of aparasitic disease, perhaps being infested by the larvae of flies(myiasis) in the bowels. Luke mentions that he was “eaten byworms” (skōlēkobrōtos [Acts 12:23]). The fatherof Publius also suffered from dysentery (Acts 28:8).

PhysicalDeformities and Abnormalities

Individualswith deformities were disqualified from priestly service (Lev.21:18–20). The list included lameness, limb damage, anddwarfism. The deformities mentioned here might have been congenitalor acquired. Mephibosheth was dropped by his nurse (2 Sam. 4:4) andperhaps suffered damage to the spinal cord. Jacob possibly sustainedinjury to an intervertebral disk (Gen. 32:32) causing a deformity anda limp. The woman who was “bent over” (Luke 13:10–17)might have suffered from an abnormality of the spine similar toscoliosis. It is difficult to ascertain the origin of the “shriveledhand” of the unnamed individual healed by Jesus (Matt.12:10–13; Mark 3:1–5; Luke 6:6–10). It could becongenital in character or a paralysis caused by any number offactors.

Diseasesand Disabilities of the Eyes and Ears

Physicalblindness is mentioned several times in the Bible. Blindness excludedone from serving as a priest (Lev. 21:18, 20). Blindness anddeafness, however, were disabilities requiring special care from thecommunity (Lev. 19:14; Deut. 27:18). The “weak eyes” ofLeah may refer to an eye condition (Gen. 29:17).

Blindnessin the biblical world was caused by various factors. Leviticus 26:16speaks of a fever that destroys the eyes. Flies probably wereresponsible for much of the conjunctivitis found in children. John9:1 mentions congenital blindness, which Jesus cured using mud madefrom spittle and dirt (John 9:6). In Mark 8:22–26 Jesus healeda blind man by spitting in his eye and laying hands on him (cf. Matt.20:34 with Mark10:52).

Congenitaldeafness would also be associated with mutism and speech defectsbecause a child learning to speak depends on imitation and mimicry.Jesus healed a man who was deaf and could barely talk (Mark 7:32–37).The man’s inability to say much possibly pointed to a loss ofhearing early in life.

SkinConditions

Variousskin and hair abnormalities are described in the Bible. Some made theindividual unclean (Lev. 13:30; 14:54). The OT speaks of “theboils of Egypt” (Deut. 28:27; cf. Exod. 9:9). Skin ailmentsincluded tumors, festering sores, boils, infections, and the itch(Deut. 28:27, 35; Isa. 3:7). Job complained of a litany of ailments:broken and festering skin (7:5), multiple wounds (9:17), blackpeeling skin and fever (30:30), gnawing bone pain (2:5; 19:20;30:17), insomnia (7:3–4), and wasting away (33:21). Thesesymptoms have been diagnosed as indications of yaws or eczema. Apoultice made of figs cured Hezekiah’s boil (2Kings20:7).

Leprosywas once thought to be a common problem in the biblical world.Leprosy (Hansen’s disease) is a slow, progressive chronicinfectious disease caused by a bacterium. Symptoms include loss ofsensation and loss of parts of the body. Evidence for this type ofdisease in Palestine is rare. Uzziah may have had a true case ofHansen’s disease. He was quarantined until the day he died(2Chron. 26:21).

Scholarsnow suggest that the symptoms of the disease described in the Bibledo not fit this pattern and thus do not signify leprosy (Hansen’sdisease) as it is known today. Instead, the word that Englishversions translate as “leprosy” (Heb. root tsr’)probably refers to different types of infectious skin disease, oftencharacterized by a long-standing, patchy skin condition associatedwith peeling or flakiness and redness of skin. Evidence points moretoward psoriasis, fungal infections, or dermatitis.

Thisdisease could appear in humans (Lev. 14:2), on buildings (14:34), andon clothing (14:55). It was not limited to the extremities but couldoccur on the head (14:42–44). It could run its course quickly(13:5–8). It made the individual ceremonially unclean, but itwas also curable (Lev. 14:3; 2Kings 5:1–27). Individualswith the disease were not necessarily shunned (2Kings 7; Matt.26:6// Mark 14:3). Moses (Exod. 4:6), Miriam (Num. 12:10), andNaaman experienced this type of skin disease (2Kings 5:1–27).Jesus healed many suffering from skin ailments (Matt. 8:2–3;Mark 1:40–42; Luke 5:12–13), including the ten “menwho had leprosy” (Luke 17:12–14).

Ailmentsof an Unknown Nature

Somecases in the Bible present insufficient evidence for scholars torender a clear diagnosis. King Asa suffered a disease in his feet(2Chron. 16:12). However, in the OT the Hebrew expression for“feet” is sometimes used euphemistically for the sexualorgans (Judg. 3:24 KJV). Because of this, the exact nature of thedisease is ambiguous. Jehoram was afflicted with “an incurabledisease of the bowels” (2Chron. 21:18–19). Otherunknown ailments factor in the deaths of the firstborn son of Davidand Bathsheba (2Sam. 12:15), of Jeroboam’s son in infancy(1Kings 14:17), of Elisha (2Kings 13:14), and ofEzekiel’s wife (Ezek. 24:16).

The word “sign” usually is a translation of theHebrew word ’otor the Greek word sēmeion.Signs are visible, typically being an object, a mark, an event, or acustom. In addition, signs are symbolic, pointing to things not seen.Signs often reveal or share some quality with the unseen reality towhich they point, and so they are a token of that reality. In theBible, signs typically are caused or instituted by God, and in manycases they are miraculous. However, in a few cases signs are setforth as the work of other gods (as in Deut. 13:1–2) or asbeing instituted by merely human design (as in Num. 2:2). In summary,a sign may be defined as something seen that points to somethingunseen, and that is instituted or created to do so by someone’sintention.

Severalexamples support this definition. Keeping the Sabbath is a sign ofGod’s rest after creating the world (Exod. 31:15); the Sabbathrest itself imitates God’s rest. Circumcision is a sign ofGod’s promise to both Abraham and his descendants; circumcisionis also a physical mark that is related to human fertility (Gen.17:11). The rainbow is a sign of God’s promise not to destroythe world by water and rain; rainbows appear only with rain (Gen.9:13). (In the original Hebrew text, both the custom of circumcisionand the rainbow that appears after the great flood are called“signs.”) The early Passover plagues both bring and warnof judgment, while the healing miracles of Jesus both bring andpromise blessing. While signs point to unseen realities, theserealities do not diminish the value or importance of the visibleworld. Instead, the unseen realities themselves are ultimatelyexpressed in the visible world.

DivineIntervention

Theword “sign” usually refers to an event that cannot beplausibly explained by natural or human causes but is consistent withintervention by God or by some other divine power. An importantexample of this occurs in the book of Exodus. In Exodus, Mosespredicts each kind of plague that will occur and the time of itsoccurrence. Many of those plagues, such as the plague of locusts(Exod. 10:14–15), are events that could occur naturally.However, the merely natural occurrence of so many plagues in such ashort time is quite improbable. It is likewise improbable that Mosescould simply guess beforehand the type and timing of all theseplagues.

Ultimately,a merely natural explanation for these plagues does not provecredible to the Egyptians. However, the plagues are consistent withacts of divine intervention, provided one does not rule out thatpossibility beforehand. They are consistent because Moses gives aplausible explanation of why God would intervene at this time, eventhough God had not intervened within living memory. All theseevidences together are considered sufficient to infer that some godhas caused the signs. The signs are portrayed as objectively knownevents. When Pharaoh refuses to admit that Moses can bring plagues,Pharaoh’s own officials say that he should know better (Exod.10:7). The officials believe in the reality of the signs even thoughthey do not follow the faith or God of Moses.

Throughoutthe Bible, signs give evidence of God’s direct action andidentity, but they are not given as evidence for God’sexistence. God’s existence is to be known by other means; forexample, Paul writes that the existence of the Creator is “clearlyseen” from the created world (Rom. 1:20).

Miraclesand Faith

Miraculoussigns often are given to validate a prophet and his message. Signsare especially frequent when that prophetic message is a covenantfrom God that has life-or-death consequences. Both the Mosaiccovenant (Deut. 30:15–20) and the new covenant of Jesus (Luke22:15–20; John 5:24–29) warn of life and death. In theOT, signs occur most prolifically at the hands of Moses. The signsmanifested on behalf of Moses are explicitly given so that peoplewill believe in Moses and follow God’s covenant (Exod. 4:1–9;19:9).

Signsoccur even more frequently and prominently in the NT. Jesus makes thelame walk, heals the blind, and even raises the dead (John 5:1–9;9:1–7; 11:1–44). Throughout the Gospels, Jesus ischaracterized as performing many signs, and the signs are cited asone reason to believe in Jesus (John 20:30–31). The signs arecharacteristic of Jesus’ ministry and later of his apostles’ministries. The tradition that Jesus performed signs is interwoventhroughout the four Gospels as we have them, even in portions oftenthought to reflect earlier sources. The most important sign in the NTis the resurrection of Jesus, since this is the ultimate validationof Jesus by God, and the Christian faith hangs upon the truth ofJesus’ resurrection (1Cor. 15:1–20).

Althoughsigns are given to elicit faith, human nature and desires are suchthat reasonable belief does not always take root. As with Pharaoh,many others throughout the OT do not believe despite seeing signs(e.g., Num. 14:11; Ps. 78:11). In the Gospels, many will not believeany reports about miraculous signs. They instead demand to see signspersonally (Mark 8:11–12; John 4:48; 6:30; 9:27–41;20:29) or attribute them to Satan. The Passover signs were to beremembered and credited by later generations (Exod. 12:26–27).Similarly, the signs performed by Jesus were intended by theevangelists to be credited by readers who had not seen them (John20:29–31). Belief is not expected without inquiry (John4:39–42; Acts 17:11); however, unbelief in the face of evidenceis seen as a human failing (John 11:37–40).

Water is mentioned extensively in the Bible due to itsprevalence in creation and its association with life and purity. Thecosmic waters of Gen. 1 are held back by the sky (Gen. 1:6–7;cf. Pss. 104:6, 13; 148:4). God is enthroned on these waters in hiscosmic temple (Pss. 29:10; 104:3, 13; cf. Gen. 1:2; Ps. 78:69; Isa.66:1). These same waters were released in the time of Noah (Gen.7:10–12; Ps. 104:7–9).

Wateris also an agent of life and fertility and is therefore associatedwith the presence of God. Both God himself and his temple aredescribed as the source of life-giving water (Jer. 2:13; 17:13; Joel3:18; cf. Isa. 12:2–3). Ezekiel envisions this water flowingfrom beneath the temple and streaming down into the Dead Sea, whereit brings life and fecundity (Ezek. 47:1–12; cf. Zech. 14:8).The book of Revelation, employing the same image, describes “theriver of the water of life, as clear as crystal, flowing from thethrone of God and of the Lamb” (22:1). This imagery is alsoillustrated in archaeological remains associated with temples.Cisterns are attested beneath the Dome of the Rock (presumably thelocation of the Jerusalem temple) and beneath the Judahite temple atArad. Other temples, such as the Israelite high place at Tel Dan, arelocated close to freshwater springs. The Gihon Spring in the City ofDavid may also be associated with the Jerusalem temple (Ps. 46:4; cf.Gen. 2:13).

ThisOT imagery forms the background for Jesus’ teaching regardingeternal life in the writings of the apostle John. Jesus claims to bethe source of living water, and he offers it freely to everyone whothirsts (John 4:10–15; 7:37; Rev. 21:6; 22:17; cf. Rev. 7:17).This water, which produces “a spring of water welling up toeternal life” (John 4:14), is the work of the Holy Spirit inthe believer (John 7:38–39).

Wateris also described in the Bible as an agent of cleansing. It isextensively employed in purification rituals in the OT. In the NT,the ritual of water baptism signifies the purity and new life of thebeliever (Matt. 3:11, 16; Mark 1:8–10; Luke 3:16; John 1:26,31–33; 3:23; Acts 1:5; 8:36–39; 10:47; 11:16; 1Pet.3:20–21; cf. Eph. 5:26; Heb. 10:22).

Finally,the NT also reveals Jesus as the Lord of water. He walks on water(Matt. 14:28–29; John 6:19), turns water into wine (John 2:7–9;4:46), and controls water creatures (Matt. 17:27; John 21:6). Mostimportant, Jesus commands “the winds and the water, and theyobey him” (Luke 8:25; cf. Ps. 29:3).

Because Scripture sees all things as providentially arrangedand sustained by God’s sovereign power at all times (Heb. 1:3),miracles are not aberrations in an otherwise closed and mechanicaluniverse. Nor are miracles raw demonstrations of divinity designed toovercome prejudice or unbelief and to convince people of theexistence of God (Mark 8:11–12). Still less are they cleverconjuring tricks involving some kind of deception that can beotherwise explained on a purely scientific basis. Rather, God in hisinfinite wisdom sometimes does unusual and extraordinary things tocall attention to himself and his activity. Miracles are divinelyordained acts of God that dramatically alert us to the presence ofhis glory and power and advance his saving purposes in redemptivehistory.

Terminology

Thebiblical writers describe miracles with various terms, such as“signs,” “wonders,” and “miracles”(or “powers”), which can carry various connotations. Asthe word “sign” suggests, divine miracles are significantand should cause us to think more deeply about God in a way that goesbeyond mere amazement or curiosity (Exod. 4:30–31; John 2:11).Not all of God’s signs are miraculous. Some are given as partof his ordering of the natural world (Gen. 1:14) or as anencouragement to faith that God will do as he has said (e.g., therainbow in Gen. 9:8–17; the blood of the Passover lamb in Exod.12:13). (See also Sign.)

Oftencoupled with signs are “wonders” (Jer. 32:21; John 4:48;2Cor. 12:12). If the depiction of miracles as “signs”indicates an appeal to the intellect, that of “wonders”points to the emotions. Miracles evoke astonishment and awe at theone who did them.

TheNT word “miracle” carries the meaning of power andtherefore points to the supernatural source of these events (Luke10:13; Acts 8:13).

Miraclesin the Bible

OldTestament.In the OT, miracles are not evenly distributed but rather are foundin greater number during times of great redemptive significance, suchas the exodus and the conquest of Canaan. Miracles were performedalso during periods of apostasy, such as in the days of theninth-century prophets Elijah and Elisha. Common to both of theseeras is the powerful demonstration of the superiority of God overpagan deities (Exod. 7–12; 1Kings 18:20–40).

NewTestament. Inthe NT, miracles often are acts of compassion, but more significantlythey attest the exalted status of Jesus of Nazareth (Acts 2:22) andthe saving power of his word (Heb. 2:3–4). In the SynopticGospels, they reveal the coming of God’s kingdom and theconquest of Satan’s dominion (Matt. 8:16–17; 12:22–30;Mark 3:27). They point to the person of Jesus as the promised Messiahof OT Scripture (Matt. 4:23; 11:4–6). John shows a preferencefor the word “signs,” and his Gospel is structured aroundthem (John 20:30–31). According to John, the signs that Jesusperformed were such that only the one who stood in a uniquerelationship to the Father as the Son of God could do them.

Miraclesand faith.Just as entrenched skepticism is injurious to faith, so too is naivecredulity, for although signs and wonders witness to God, falseprophets also perform them “to deceive, if possible, even theelect” (Matt. 24:24). Christians are to exercise discernmentand not be led astray by such impostors (Matt. 7:15–20).

Therelationship between miracles and faith is not as straightforward assometimes supposed. Miracles do not necessarily produce faith, nordoes faith necessarily produce miracles. Miracles were intended tobring about the faith that leads to eternal life (John 20:31), butnot all who witnessed them believed (John 10:32). Additionally, Jesusregarded a faith that rested only on the miracle itself as precarious(Mark 8:11–13; John 2:23–25; 4:48), though better than nofaith at all (John 10:38). Faith that saves must ultimately find itsgrounding in the person of Jesus as the Son of God.

Itis also clear that although Jesus always encouraged faith in thosewho came to him for help (Mark 9:23), and that he deliberatelylimited his miraculous powers in the presence of unbelief (Mark 6:5),many of his miracles were performed on those who did not or could notexercise faith (Matt. 12:22; Mark 1:23–28; 5:1–20; Luke14:1–4).

Thefact that Jesus performed miracles was never an issue; rather, hisopponents disputed the source of his power (Mark 3:22). Argumentsabout his identity were to be settled by appeal not to miracles butto the word of God (Matt. 22:41–46).

Thefunction of miracles.Miracle accounts function in a symbolic and prophetic manner. Hence,the cursing of the fig tree was prophetic of the coming judgment(Mark 11:12–21). The unusual two-stage healing of the blind manof Bethsaida symbolized Peter’s incomplete understanding ofJesus’ messiahship (Mark 8:22–33).

Themiraculous element of Jesus’ ministry carries an eschatologicalsignificance, pointing to the order of things in the age to come. Forexample, the nature miracles (Mark 4:35–41) look forward to theredemption of creation itself, which is presently subject tofrustration and decay (Rom. 8:20–21); the healing miraclespoint to a day when disease and deformity will be abolished (Rev.21:4); and miracles in which the dead are raised to life anticipate atime when death itself will be no more (Rev. 20:14; 21:4). From thisperspective, the miracles are a gracious foretaste of a far moreglorious future.

Bible Texts and VersionsThe NT and the OT have considerably different but partiallyoverlapping textual histories. For clarity, it is best to begin witha survey of the NT manuscripts and versions.

Greektexts.Although no autographs of the NT books survive, there exist more thanfive thousand Greek texts covering anywhere from a portion of a fewverses up to the complete NT. Traditionally, these texts have beenclassified into five groups: papyri, uncials, minuscules,lectionaries, and quotations in patristic texts. The most importantmanuscripts are listed below.

Theearliest texts of the NT are those written on papyrus. Ninety-eightof these manuscripts have been identified, and they are representedby a “P” with a numerical superscript. The earliest ofthese papyri is P52, which contains parts of four verses in John 18and dates to the early second century. For substantial portions ofthe NT text, the most important papyri are found in the ChesterBeatty and Bodmer collections. P45, P46, and P47, all from theChester Beatty collection, are from the third century and containlarge sections of the four Gospels, eight of the Pauline Epistles,Hebrews, and Revelation. Within the Bodmer collection in Geneva arefour very important codices. P66 dates to around AD 200 and preservesmost of the Gospel of John. P72 dates to the third century andcontains the earliest copies of 1–2 Peter and Jude, which arepreserved in their entirety, as well as Greek translations of Pss.33–34. P74 dates to the seventh century and contains portionsof Acts, James, 1–2 Peter, 1–3 John, and Jude. Finally,P75, which dates to the early third century, contains most of Lukeand John 1–15. It is the oldest extant copy of Luke. Among theremaining papyri, forty-three have been dated to the early fourthcentury or before.

Thesecond category of manuscripts is the uncials, which usually werewritten on parchment and span the fourth through the tenth centuries.About 270 uncials are known, and they range from a few verses up tocomplete copies of the NT or even the entire Bible. Uncialsoriginally were denoted by capital letters, but when the number ofmanuscripts grew beyond these limits, a new system was employedwhereby each manuscript was given a number always beginning withzero. However, the most important uncials are still usually known bytheir letter. Among the most important uncials are the following fivemanuscripts. Codex Sinaiticus (designated by the Hebrew letter à)dates to the fourth century and is the only uncial that contains theentire NT. It also has almost all of the OT as well as the earlyChristian writings the Epistle of Barnabas and the Shepherd ofHermas. Dating from the fifth century, Codex Alexandrinus (designatedas A) contains the OT, most of the NT—lacking only portions ofMatthew, John, and 2 Corinthians—and 1–2 Clement.Along with Sinaiticus, the most important uncial is Codex Vaticanus(designated as B), which dates to the fourth century. It containsalmost all of the OT and the complete NT, except for substantialportions between Hebrews and Revelation. It has been in the Vatican’slibrary for over five hundred years. The fourth important uncial isCodex Bezae Cantabrigiensis (designated as D), which contains Greekand Latin copies of the four Gospels, most of Acts, and a few versesfrom 3 John. It dates from the late fourth or early fifthcentury. The fifth important uncial is Codex Washingtonianus(designated as W), which dates to the early fifth century andcontains virtually all of the four Gospels.

Thethird category of NT manuscripts is minuscules. These texts date fromthe ninth century and later and comprise approximately 2,800manuscripts, which are denoted by a number not beginning with zero.Among the more important minuscules are Codex 1, Codex 13, and Codex33, which, along with their relatives, are considered reliablewitnesses to early families of texts such as the Caesarean (1) or theAlexandrian (33). Codex 13 and its relatives are noteworthy forhaving the story of the adulterous woman at the end of Luke 21instead of in John 8. The final two groups of NT manuscripts, thelectionaries and quotations in patristic sources, are not manuscriptsin the strict sense of the term, but their use of portions of the NTpresents important witnesses for the practice of textual criticism.

Versions.With the spread of Christianity during the time of the Roman Empire,the NT was translated into the language of the native peoples. Theseversions of the NT are important both for textual criticism of the NTand for the interpretive decisions that are reflected in how the textwas rendered into a new language. Among the most important earlyversions of the NT are the following.

AsLatin began to displace Greek as the dominant language of the empire,there was a need for a Latin version of the Bible. The earliesttranslation, known as the Old Latin or Itala, was made probably inthe late second century, though the oldest manuscript (CodexVercellensis) is from the fourth century. With the proliferation ofLatin texts a standardized Latin translation became desirable, and inAD 382 Jerome was commissioned by Pope Damasus to provide a newtranslation known as the Vulgate.

Anotherfamily of NT versions is the Syriac texts. Around the late secondcentury the four Gospels were translated into a version known as theOld Syriac. It is extant in two incomplete manuscripts that areprobably fifth century. The translation that became the standardSyriac text is the Pesh*tta, which was produced in the early fifthcentury. It does not contain 2 Peter, 2–3 John, Jude, orRevelation because these were not considered canonical among theSyriac churches.

Otherimportant versions of the NT from antiquity are the Coptic, Armenian,Georgian, and Ethiopic translations.

OldTestament

Hebrewtexts.The text that has served as the basis for most modern editions andtranslations of the Hebrew OT is the Masoretic Text (MT), named afterthe Masoretes, the Jewish scribes who transmitted the text and addedvocalization, accentuation, and notes to the consonantal text. Themost important Masoretic manuscripts date from the end of the ninthcentury to the early eleventh century. Notable among these is theLeningrad Codex (AD 1008), denoted as L, which is the earliestMasoretic manuscript of the entire OT. Also important are the AleppoCodex (c. AD 925), denoted as A, which preserves all of the OT exceptfor most of the Pentateuch; the British Museum MS Or. 4445 (c. AD925), denoted as B, which contains most of the Pentateuch; and theCairo Codex (c. AD 896), denoted C, which contains Joshua throughKings and also the Prophets.

Althoughthese manuscripts are much later than the biblical period, theirreliability was largely confirmed with the discovery of the DSSbeginning in 1947. Among the Qumran library are many manuscripts ofbiblical books as well as biblical commentaries, apocrphyal andpseudepigraphal works, and sectarian literature. All the OT books arerepresented among the scrolls that were found except Esther andNehemiah, though the latter is usually presumed to have been at theend of Ezra but has not survived. The books with the most manuscriptsare, in order, Psalms, Deuteronomy, and Isaiah. One of the strikingcharacteristics of these scrolls is that they reflect a diversity oftext types. For example, there is a copy of Jeremiah that is close tothe Masoretic version, but also a manuscript of Jeremiah similar tothe much shorter version found in the Septuagint (the Greektranslation of the OT).

AnotherHebrew text of the OT is that of the Samaritan Pentateuch, which isthe text transmitted by the Samaritans. It is similar to the MT insome respects but also has differences that reflect theologicalinterests. The main manuscripts for the Samaritan Pentateuch are fromthe twelfth century.

Versions.Between the third and first centuries BC, the entire OT wastranslated into Greek. This version, known as the Septuagint(designated by the abbreviation LXX), became the main version of theOT used by the early church. Due to its adoption by the church, theLXX has been preserved in numerous manuscripts, including Sinaiticus,Alexandrinus, and Vaticanus. By the late first century BC or earlyfirst century AD, there were two revisions of the Greek text: theProto-Lucianic version and the Kaige recension. The latter aimed torevise the Greek toward closer conformity with the Hebrew text andderives its name from its peculiar tendency to translate the Hebrewword gam (“also”) with the Greek work kaige. In thesecond century AD three other Greek translations were made by Aquila,Theodotion, and Symmachus, all of which revised the Kaige recensionback toward the MT.

Anotherimportant early version of the OT consists of the Targumim, which areAramaic translations or paraphrases (and sometimes extensiveelaborations) of OT books. The official Targumim for Judaism areTargum Onqelos for the Pentateuch (c. second century AD), which isquite literal, and Targum Pseudo-Jonathan for the Prophets (sometimebefore the fourth century AD), which ranges from being quite literalto somewhat paraphrastic. Unofficial Targumim for the Pentateuchinclude Targum Neofiti and Targum Pseudo-Jonathan. There are alsovarious unofficial Targumim for the Writings section of the OT,except for Daniel and Ezra-Nehemiah (which are already written partlyin Aramaic).

Besidesthe Greek and Aramaic translations, there are other importantversions of the OT. Sometime in either the third or fourth centuryAD, the Pesh*tta of the OT was produced, though there is evidencethat there were earlier Syriac translations of some books alreadycirculating. Also important is a group of Latin translations knowncollectively as the Old Latin. These versions were produced sometimeduring the second century AD and were primarily made from alreadyexisting Greek translations rather than Hebrew texts. As with the NT,a later Latin translation was made by Jerome for the Vulgate.

Bible Texts and VersionsThe NT and the OT have considerably different but partiallyoverlapping textual histories. For clarity, it is best to begin witha survey of the NT manuscripts and versions.

Greektexts.Although no autographs of the NT books survive, there exist more thanfive thousand Greek texts covering anywhere from a portion of a fewverses up to the complete NT. Traditionally, these texts have beenclassified into five groups: papyri, uncials, minuscules,lectionaries, and quotations in patristic texts. The most importantmanuscripts are listed below.

Theearliest texts of the NT are those written on papyrus. Ninety-eightof these manuscripts have been identified, and they are representedby a “P” with a numerical superscript. The earliest ofthese papyri is P52, which contains parts of four verses in John 18and dates to the early second century. For substantial portions ofthe NT text, the most important papyri are found in the ChesterBeatty and Bodmer collections. P45, P46, and P47, all from theChester Beatty collection, are from the third century and containlarge sections of the four Gospels, eight of the Pauline Epistles,Hebrews, and Revelation. Within the Bodmer collection in Geneva arefour very important codices. P66 dates to around AD 200 and preservesmost of the Gospel of John. P72 dates to the third century andcontains the earliest copies of 1–2 Peter and Jude, which arepreserved in their entirety, as well as Greek translations of Pss.33–34. P74 dates to the seventh century and contains portionsof Acts, James, 1–2 Peter, 1–3 John, and Jude. Finally,P75, which dates to the early third century, contains most of Lukeand John 1–15. It is the oldest extant copy of Luke. Among theremaining papyri, forty-three have been dated to the early fourthcentury or before.

Thesecond category of manuscripts is the uncials, which usually werewritten on parchment and span the fourth through the tenth centuries.About 270 uncials are known, and they range from a few verses up tocomplete copies of the NT or even the entire Bible. Uncialsoriginally were denoted by capital letters, but when the number ofmanuscripts grew beyond these limits, a new system was employedwhereby each manuscript was given a number always beginning withzero. However, the most important uncials are still usually known bytheir letter. Among the most important uncials are the following fivemanuscripts. Codex Sinaiticus (designated by the Hebrew letter à)dates to the fourth century and is the only uncial that contains theentire NT. It also has almost all of the OT as well as the earlyChristian writings the Epistle of Barnabas and the Shepherd ofHermas. Dating from the fifth century, Codex Alexandrinus (designatedas A) contains the OT, most of the NT—lacking only portions ofMatthew, John, and 2 Corinthians—and 1–2 Clement.Along with Sinaiticus, the most important uncial is Codex Vaticanus(designated as B), which dates to the fourth century. It containsalmost all of the OT and the complete NT, except for substantialportions between Hebrews and Revelation. It has been in the Vatican’slibrary for over five hundred years. The fourth important uncial isCodex Bezae Cantabrigiensis (designated as D), which contains Greekand Latin copies of the four Gospels, most of Acts, and a few versesfrom 3 John. It dates from the late fourth or early fifthcentury. The fifth important uncial is Codex Washingtonianus(designated as W), which dates to the early fifth century andcontains virtually all of the four Gospels.

Thethird category of NT manuscripts is minuscules. These texts date fromthe ninth century and later and comprise approximately 2,800manuscripts, which are denoted by a number not beginning with zero.Among the more important minuscules are Codex 1, Codex 13, and Codex33, which, along with their relatives, are considered reliablewitnesses to early families of texts such as the Caesarean (1) or theAlexandrian (33). Codex 13 and its relatives are noteworthy forhaving the story of the adulterous woman at the end of Luke 21instead of in John 8. The final two groups of NT manuscripts, thelectionaries and quotations in patristic sources, are not manuscriptsin the strict sense of the term, but their use of portions of the NTpresents important witnesses for the practice of textual criticism.

Versions.With the spread of Christianity during the time of the Roman Empire,the NT was translated into the language of the native peoples. Theseversions of the NT are important both for textual criticism of the NTand for the interpretive decisions that are reflected in how the textwas rendered into a new language. Among the most important earlyversions of the NT are the following.

AsLatin began to displace Greek as the dominant language of the empire,there was a need for a Latin version of the Bible. The earliesttranslation, known as the Old Latin or Itala, was made probably inthe late second century, though the oldest manuscript (CodexVercellensis) is from the fourth century. With the proliferation ofLatin texts a standardized Latin translation became desirable, and inAD 382 Jerome was commissioned by Pope Damasus to provide a newtranslation known as the Vulgate.

Anotherfamily of NT versions is the Syriac texts. Around the late secondcentury the four Gospels were translated into a version known as theOld Syriac. It is extant in two incomplete manuscripts that areprobably fifth century. The translation that became the standardSyriac text is the Pesh*tta, which was produced in the early fifthcentury. It does not contain 2 Peter, 2–3 John, Jude, orRevelation because these were not considered canonical among theSyriac churches.

Otherimportant versions of the NT from antiquity are the Coptic, Armenian,Georgian, and Ethiopic translations.

OldTestament

Hebrewtexts.The text that has served as the basis for most modern editions andtranslations of the Hebrew OT is the Masoretic Text (MT), named afterthe Masoretes, the Jewish scribes who transmitted the text and addedvocalization, accentuation, and notes to the consonantal text. Themost important Masoretic manuscripts date from the end of the ninthcentury to the early eleventh century. Notable among these is theLeningrad Codex (AD 1008), denoted as L, which is the earliestMasoretic manuscript of the entire OT. Also important are the AleppoCodex (c. AD 925), denoted as A, which preserves all of the OT exceptfor most of the Pentateuch; the British Museum MS Or. 4445 (c. AD925), denoted as B, which contains most of the Pentateuch; and theCairo Codex (c. AD 896), denoted C, which contains Joshua throughKings and also the Prophets.

Althoughthese manuscripts are much later than the biblical period, theirreliability was largely confirmed with the discovery of the DSSbeginning in 1947. Among the Qumran library are many manuscripts ofbiblical books as well as biblical commentaries, apocrphyal andpseudepigraphal works, and sectarian literature. All the OT books arerepresented among the scrolls that were found except Esther andNehemiah, though the latter is usually presumed to have been at theend of Ezra but has not survived. The books with the most manuscriptsare, in order, Psalms, Deuteronomy, and Isaiah. One of the strikingcharacteristics of these scrolls is that they reflect a diversity oftext types. For example, there is a copy of Jeremiah that is close tothe Masoretic version, but also a manuscript of Jeremiah similar tothe much shorter version found in the Septuagint (the Greektranslation of the OT).

AnotherHebrew text of the OT is that of the Samaritan Pentateuch, which isthe text transmitted by the Samaritans. It is similar to the MT insome respects but also has differences that reflect theologicalinterests. The main manuscripts for the Samaritan Pentateuch are fromthe twelfth century.

Versions.Between the third and first centuries BC, the entire OT wastranslated into Greek. This version, known as the Septuagint(designated by the abbreviation LXX), became the main version of theOT used by the early church. Due to its adoption by the church, theLXX has been preserved in numerous manuscripts, including Sinaiticus,Alexandrinus, and Vaticanus. By the late first century BC or earlyfirst century AD, there were two revisions of the Greek text: theProto-Lucianic version and the Kaige recension. The latter aimed torevise the Greek toward closer conformity with the Hebrew text andderives its name from its peculiar tendency to translate the Hebrewword gam (“also”) with the Greek work kaige. In thesecond century AD three other Greek translations were made by Aquila,Theodotion, and Symmachus, all of which revised the Kaige recensionback toward the MT.

Anotherimportant early version of the OT consists of the Targumim, which areAramaic translations or paraphrases (and sometimes extensiveelaborations) of OT books. The official Targumim for Judaism areTargum Onqelos for the Pentateuch (c. second century AD), which isquite literal, and Targum Pseudo-Jonathan for the Prophets (sometimebefore the fourth century AD), which ranges from being quite literalto somewhat paraphrastic. Unofficial Targumim for the Pentateuchinclude Targum Neofiti and Targum Pseudo-Jonathan. There are alsovarious unofficial Targumim for the Writings section of the OT,except for Daniel and Ezra-Nehemiah (which are already written partlyin Aramaic).

Besidesthe Greek and Aramaic translations, there are other importantversions of the OT. Sometime in either the third or fourth centuryAD, the Pesh*tta of the OT was produced, though there is evidencethat there were earlier Syriac translations of some books alreadycirculating. Also important is a group of Latin translations knowncollectively as the Old Latin. These versions were produced sometimeduring the second century AD and were primarily made from alreadyexisting Greek translations rather than Hebrew texts. As with the NT,a later Latin translation was made by Jerome for the Vulgate.

(Disabilities; Disability; Deformity; Deformities; Sickness]The Bible often speaks of health, healing, disease, andillness. Good health was a sign of God’s favor, and healing wasalso the work of God and his divinely empowered agents. These agentsincluded the prophets (1Kings 17:8–23; 2Kings5:1–15), the apostles (Acts 3:1–10), and the messiah(Mal. 4:2). The divine prerogative of Jesus was to heal (Mark 1:32;6:56; Matt. 4:23; 8:16; 15:30; 21:14; Luke 6:10, 17–19), andmiraculous healings were a sign of his messianic office (Luke7:20–23). Disease, on the other hand, was regarded as a sign ofGod’s disfavor. Within a covenantal context, God could senddisease to punish the sinner (Exod. 4:11; 32:35).

TheBible assigns a wide variety of names to various diseases and theirsymptoms. These terms are nontechnical and generally descriptive.Some are uncertain in meaning. In most cases they describe thesymptoms of the disease, not the disease itself. Diagnosis often wasbased on incomplete observation and nonclinical examination. TheBible also presupposes supernatural intervention in the life of aperson. Healing occurred when God’s agents touched individuals,cast out demons, and resurrected the dead.

AncientNear Eastern Influences

Inthe ancient Near East the knowledge of disease and medicine wasprecritical. Bacteria and viruses were virtually unknown.Mesopotamian literature contains many references to medicine,physicians, and medical practice. Minerals, salts, herbs, and otherbotanicals were used to make up treatments. Babylonian physiciansalso administered prescriptions accompanied by incantations. Diseasewas considered to be the result of a violation of a taboo orpossession by a demon. The Code of Hammurabi (1750 BC) includes lawsregulating the practice of medicine and surgery by physicians. InEgypt medicine and healing were connected to the gods. Tomb paintingsand several papyrus documents describe the developing state ofEgyptian medicine, pharmacy, and surgery.

Greekphysicians admired and sought to learn the skills of the Egyptians.However, the early Greek doctor Hippocrates (460–370 BC),called the “Father of Medicine,” is credited with beingthe first physician to reject the belief that supernatural or divineforces cause illness. He argued that disease is the result ofenvironmental factors, diet, and living habits, not a punishmentimposed by the gods.

Itis clear that the biblical world shared with the ancient Near Eastthe same types of maladies common to tropical or subtropicalclimates. These include malaria, tropical fevers, dysentery, andsunstroke. The tendency of the hot climate to produce frequentdroughts and famine certainly contributed to similar types ofdiseases throughout the Fertile Crescent. Additionally, it must beremembered that Palestine was a land bridge between the Mesopotamianand Egyptian worlds. Migrations carry not only goods and products,but also parasites, communicable disease, and epidemics.

BiblicalConcept of Disease

Thereligious tradition of the Hebrews repudiated the magical or demonicorigin of disease. Hence, moral, ethical, and spiritual factorsregulated disease and illness. This was true for the individual aswell as the community. The Hebrews, like the Egyptians, alsorecognized that much sickness arose from the individual’srelationship to the physical environment. Great stress was placed onhygiene and preventive medicine.

Pentateuchallegislation offered seven covenantal principles designed to preventthe possibility of disease and sickness: (1)Sabbath observancefor humans, animals, and the land, which enforced regular periods ofrest (Gen. 2:3); (2)dietary regulations, which divided foodinto efficient categories of clean and unclean (Lev. 11);(3)circumcision, which carried physical benefits as well asreligious and moral implications (Gen. 17:9; circumcision is the onlyexample of Hebrew surgery); (4)laws governing sexualrelationships and health, including a list of forbidden degrees ofmarital relationships (Lev. 18–20); (5)provisions forindividual sexual hygiene (Lev. 15); (6)stipulations forcleanliness and bodily purification (Lev. 14:2; 15:2); (7) sanitaryand hygienic regulations for camp life (Num. 31:19; Deut. 23:12).

InNT times magical charms and incantations were used along with folkremedies in an effort to cure disease. Jesus repudiated these means.He also suggested that sickness and disease were not directpunishments for sin (John 9:2). In the Sermon on the Mount (Matt.5–7), Jesus confirmed that the ethical and religious standardsof the new covenant promoted the total health of the community andthe individual.

CirculatoryDiseases

Nabalmost likely suffered a cerebrovascular accident or stroke (1Sam.25:36–38). After a heavy bout of drinking, his heart “died”(KJV; NIV: “failed”), and he became paralyzed, lapsedinto a coma, and died ten days later. Psalm 137:5–6 may containa clinical example of the symptoms of stroke. The psalmist wrote, “IfI forget you, Jerusalem, may my right hand forget its skill. May mytongue cling to the roof of my mouth if I do not remember you.”This description points to a paralysis of the right side of the body(right hemiplegia) and the loss of speech (motor aphasia) that resultfrom a stroke on the left side of the brain. Basically, the exiledpsalmist is wishing upon himself the effects of a stroke if he heldanything other than Jerusalem as his highest priority. Some haveconsidered the collapse of Uzzah when he reached out to stabilize theark of the covenant (2Sam. 6:6–7) to be the consequenceof an apoplectic seizure. But since no actual paralysis was describedand death occurred immediately, this seems unlikely. It is moreprobable that God struck him down with an aortic aneurism or acoronary thrombosis.

Paralysis

Apossible case of paralysis may be described in the shriveled(atrophic) hand of JeroboamI (1Kings 13:4–6). In anangry outburst Jeroboam ordered the arrest of a prophet who condemnedthe altar at Bethel. When Jeroboam stretched out his hand, it“shriveled up, so that he could not pull it back.”Several complicated diagnoses have been offered to explain the“withered” hand, but it is possibly an example ofcataplexy, a sudden loss of muscle power following a strong emotionalstimulus. After intercession by the man of God, and the subsiding ofthe emotional outburst, the arm was restored.

Thethreat against the faithless shepherd of God’s people (Zech.11:17), which included a withered arm and blindness in the right eye,may refer to a form of paralysis known as tabes dorsalis, orlocomotor ataxia. Knifelike pains in the extremities and blindnesscharacterize this disease.

Paralysisis frequently mentioned in the NT (Matt. 8:6; 9:2, 6; 12:10; Mark2:3–5, 9, 10; 3:1, 3, 5; Luke 5:18, 24; 6:6; John 5:3; Acts9:33; Heb. 12:12). The exact diagnosis for each of these casesremains uncertain.

Thephysician Luke’s use of the Greek medical term paralelymenos(Luke 5:18, 24) suggests that some of these cases were caused bychronic organic disease. Others clearly were congenital (Acts 3:2;cf. 14:8). It is not necessary to rationalize the origin of theseexamples of paralysis as hysteria or pretense. The NT writersregarded the healing of these individuals by Jesus and the apostlesas miraculous.

MentalIllness and Brain Disorders

Casesof mental disease are generally described in the Bible by noting thesymptoms produced by the disorder. The particular cause of a mentalillness in the NT is often blamed on an unknown evil spirit orspirits (Luke 8:2). Such spirits, however, were subject to God’scontrol and operated only within the boundaries allowed by him(1Sam. 16:14–16, 23; 18:10; 19:9). Accordingly, in the OT“madness” and “confusion of mind” wereregarded as consequences of covenantal disobedience (Deut. 28:28,34).

Ithas been argued that King Saul displayed early indications ofpersonality disorder. Symptoms included pride, self-aggrandizement(1Sam. 11:6; 13:12; 15:9, 19), and ecstatic behavior(10:11–12). A rapid deterioration in Saul’s charactertranspired after David was anointed and became more popular (16:14;18:10–11). Since Saul demonstrated fear, jealousy, a sense ofpersecution, and homicidal tendencies, some scholars argue that hesuffered from paranoid schizophrenia.

Nebuchadnezzarsuffered a rare form of monomania in which he lived like a wild beastin the field eating grass (Dan. 4:33). David, in order to save hisown life, feigned insanity or perhaps epilepsy before the Philistineking Achish (1Sam. 21:12–15).

Inthe NT, individuals with mental disorders went about naked, mutilatedthemselves, lived in tombs (Mark 5:2), and exhibited violent behavior(Matt. 8:28). Such mental disorientation was often linked to demonpossession. Examples include the Syrophoenician’s child (Matt.15:22; Mark 7:25), the demoniacs at Gerasa (Matt. 8:28; Mark 5:2;Luke 8:27) and Capernaum (Mark 1:23; Luke 4:33), a blind and mutedemoniac (Matt. 12:22; Luke 11:14), and a fortune-telling slave girl(Acts 16:16). While such behavior is clinically suggestive ofparanoid schizophrenia or other mental disorders, themind-controlling influence of some extraneous negative force cannotbe ruled out.

Epilepsy(grand mal) causes the afflicted person to fall to the ground, foamat the mouth, and clench or grind the teeth (Matt. 17:15; Mark9:17–18; Luke 9:39). The description of Saul falling to theground in an ecstatic state (1Sam. 19:23–24) and Balaamfalling with open eyes may be indicative of an epileptic seizure. Inthe NT, Jesus healed many who suffered from epilepsy (Matt. 4:24;17:14–18; Mark 9:17–18; Luke 9:38–42). Somescholars have linked the light seen by Paul on the road to Damascuswith the aura that some epileptics experience prior to a seizure. Hissubsequent blindness has also been attributed to the epilepticdisturbance of the circulation of the blood in the brain.

ChildhoodDiseases

Thecause of the death of the widow’s son at Zarephath is unknown(1Kings 17:17–22). The death of the Shunammite woman’sson has been attributed to sunstroke (2Kings 4:18–37),although a headache is the only symptom recorded (v.19). Inboth cases there is too little evidence to present an accuratediagnosis.

Inthe first case, the boy at Zarephath stopped breathing (1Kings17:17). This may leave the door open to argue that Elijahresuscitated the child. However, in the second case, the text clearlystates that the Shunammite boy died (2Kings 4:20), implying aresurrection.

Infectiousand Communicable Diseases

Feverand other calamities are listed among the punishments for covenantalinfidelity (Deut. 28:22). Three different types of fever may beintentionally described here: “fever,” “inflammation,”and “scorching heat” (ESV: “fiery heat”).Fever is also mentioned frequently in the NT (Matt. 8:15; Mark1:30–31; Luke 4:38–39; John 4:52; Acts 28:8). Both Jesusand Paul healed individuals who had a fever. A number of these feverswere likely caused by malaria, since the disease was known to beendemic to the Jordan Valley and other marshy areas in Palestine.

Severalepidemics in which numerous people died of pestilence or plague arementioned in the OT (Exod. 11:1; 12:13; Num. 14:37; Zech. 14:12). Thefifth plague of Egypt (Exod. 9:3–6) has been attributed toJordan Rift Valley fever, which is spread by flies. Bubonic plaguehas been blamed for the malady that struck the Philistines (1Sam.5–6). However, it may have been the result of a severe form oftropical dysentery. Acute bacillary dysentery contracted in themilitary camp may also have been responsible for the epidemic thatkilled a large number of the Assyrian army (2Kings 19:35).

ParasiticDiseases

Somescholars have repeatedly argued that the “fiery serpents”(NIV: “venomous snakes”) encountered by Moses and thechildren of Israel (Num. 21:6–9) were in reality an infestationof the parasitic guinea worm (Dracunculus medinensis). Microscopicfleas ingested in drinking water carry the larvae of this slendernematode into the body. The larvae move from the digestive tract tothe skin. The adult worm, which may grow to a length of several feet,discharges its eggs into an ulcer on the skin. Death of the hostoccurs because of the resulting infection of the skin ulcers.

Afterthe conquest of Jericho, Joshua cursed the individual who wouldendeavor to rebuild the city (Josh. 6:26). Later, Hiel of Bethelattempted to rebuild the city and lost two of his sons as a result ofthe curse (1Kings 16:34). Elisha was then asked to purify thebad water at Jericho in order to allow a new settlement (2Kings2:19). Elisha obliged by throwing salt into the spring and therebymaking the water potable (2:20–22). Recent archaeological studyhas discovered the remains of certain snails in the mud-bricks usedto construct Jericho in the Bronze Age. These types of snails are nowknown to serve as intermediate hosts for the flatworm parasite thatcan cause schistosomiasis. The Schistosoma haematobium trematodeinfects the urinary tract and the bladder. It is possible that thistype of parasite was responsible for the death of Hiel’s twosons.

InNT times, Herod Agrippa apparently died of the complications of aparasitic disease, perhaps being infested by the larvae of flies(myiasis) in the bowels. Luke mentions that he was “eaten byworms” (skōlēkobrōtos [Acts 12:23]). The fatherof Publius also suffered from dysentery (Acts 28:8).

PhysicalDeformities and Abnormalities

Individualswith deformities were disqualified from priestly service (Lev.21:18–20). The list included lameness, limb damage, anddwarfism. The deformities mentioned here might have been congenitalor acquired. Mephibosheth was dropped by his nurse (2 Sam. 4:4) andperhaps suffered damage to the spinal cord. Jacob possibly sustainedinjury to an intervertebral disk (Gen. 32:32) causing a deformity anda limp. The woman who was “bent over” (Luke 13:10–17)might have suffered from an abnormality of the spine similar toscoliosis. It is difficult to ascertain the origin of the “shriveledhand” of the unnamed individual healed by Jesus (Matt.12:10–13; Mark 3:1–5; Luke 6:6–10). It could becongenital in character or a paralysis caused by any number offactors.

Diseasesand Disabilities of the Eyes and Ears

Physicalblindness is mentioned several times in the Bible. Blindness excludedone from serving as a priest (Lev. 21:18, 20). Blindness anddeafness, however, were disabilities requiring special care from thecommunity (Lev. 19:14; Deut. 27:18). The “weak eyes” ofLeah may refer to an eye condition (Gen. 29:17).

Blindnessin the biblical world was caused by various factors. Leviticus 26:16speaks of a fever that destroys the eyes. Flies probably wereresponsible for much of the conjunctivitis found in children. John9:1 mentions congenital blindness, which Jesus cured using mud madefrom spittle and dirt (John 9:6). In Mark 8:22–26 Jesus healeda blind man by spitting in his eye and laying hands on him (cf. Matt.20:34 with Mark10:52).

Congenitaldeafness would also be associated with mutism and speech defectsbecause a child learning to speak depends on imitation and mimicry.Jesus healed a man who was deaf and could barely talk (Mark 7:32–37).The man’s inability to say much possibly pointed to a loss ofhearing early in life.

SkinConditions

Variousskin and hair abnormalities are described in the Bible. Some made theindividual unclean (Lev. 13:30; 14:54). The OT speaks of “theboils of Egypt” (Deut. 28:27; cf. Exod. 9:9). Skin ailmentsincluded tumors, festering sores, boils, infections, and the itch(Deut. 28:27, 35; Isa. 3:7). Job complained of a litany of ailments:broken and festering skin (7:5), multiple wounds (9:17), blackpeeling skin and fever (30:30), gnawing bone pain (2:5; 19:20;30:17), insomnia (7:3–4), and wasting away (33:21). Thesesymptoms have been diagnosed as indications of yaws or eczema. Apoultice made of figs cured Hezekiah’s boil (2Kings20:7).

Leprosywas once thought to be a common problem in the biblical world.Leprosy (Hansen’s disease) is a slow, progressive chronicinfectious disease caused by a bacterium. Symptoms include loss ofsensation and loss of parts of the body. Evidence for this type ofdisease in Palestine is rare. Uzziah may have had a true case ofHansen’s disease. He was quarantined until the day he died(2Chron. 26:21).

Scholarsnow suggest that the symptoms of the disease described in the Bibledo not fit this pattern and thus do not signify leprosy (Hansen’sdisease) as it is known today. Instead, the word that Englishversions translate as “leprosy” (Heb. root tsr’)probably refers to different types of infectious skin disease, oftencharacterized by a long-standing, patchy skin condition associatedwith peeling or flakiness and redness of skin. Evidence points moretoward psoriasis, fungal infections, or dermatitis.

Thisdisease could appear in humans (Lev. 14:2), on buildings (14:34), andon clothing (14:55). It was not limited to the extremities but couldoccur on the head (14:42–44). It could run its course quickly(13:5–8). It made the individual ceremonially unclean, but itwas also curable (Lev. 14:3; 2Kings 5:1–27). Individualswith the disease were not necessarily shunned (2Kings 7; Matt.26:6// Mark 14:3). Moses (Exod. 4:6), Miriam (Num. 12:10), andNaaman experienced this type of skin disease (2Kings 5:1–27).Jesus healed many suffering from skin ailments (Matt. 8:2–3;Mark 1:40–42; Luke 5:12–13), including the ten “menwho had leprosy” (Luke 17:12–14).

Ailmentsof an Unknown Nature

Somecases in the Bible present insufficient evidence for scholars torender a clear diagnosis. King Asa suffered a disease in his feet(2Chron. 16:12). However, in the OT the Hebrew expression for“feet” is sometimes used euphemistically for the sexualorgans (Judg. 3:24 KJV). Because of this, the exact nature of thedisease is ambiguous. Jehoram was afflicted with “an incurabledisease of the bowels” (2Chron. 21:18–19). Otherunknown ailments factor in the deaths of the firstborn son of Davidand Bathsheba (2Sam. 12:15), of Jeroboam’s son in infancy(1Kings 14:17), of Elisha (2Kings 13:14), and ofEzekiel’s wife (Ezek. 24:16).

(Disabilities; Disability; Deformity; Deformities; Sickness]The Bible often speaks of health, healing, disease, andillness. Good health was a sign of God’s favor, and healing wasalso the work of God and his divinely empowered agents. These agentsincluded the prophets (1Kings 17:8–23; 2Kings5:1–15), the apostles (Acts 3:1–10), and the messiah(Mal. 4:2). The divine prerogative of Jesus was to heal (Mark 1:32;6:56; Matt. 4:23; 8:16; 15:30; 21:14; Luke 6:10, 17–19), andmiraculous healings were a sign of his messianic office (Luke7:20–23). Disease, on the other hand, was regarded as a sign ofGod’s disfavor. Within a covenantal context, God could senddisease to punish the sinner (Exod. 4:11; 32:35).

TheBible assigns a wide variety of names to various diseases and theirsymptoms. These terms are nontechnical and generally descriptive.Some are uncertain in meaning. In most cases they describe thesymptoms of the disease, not the disease itself. Diagnosis often wasbased on incomplete observation and nonclinical examination. TheBible also presupposes supernatural intervention in the life of aperson. Healing occurred when God’s agents touched individuals,cast out demons, and resurrected the dead.

AncientNear Eastern Influences

Inthe ancient Near East the knowledge of disease and medicine wasprecritical. Bacteria and viruses were virtually unknown.Mesopotamian literature contains many references to medicine,physicians, and medical practice. Minerals, salts, herbs, and otherbotanicals were used to make up treatments. Babylonian physiciansalso administered prescriptions accompanied by incantations. Diseasewas considered to be the result of a violation of a taboo orpossession by a demon. The Code of Hammurabi (1750 BC) includes lawsregulating the practice of medicine and surgery by physicians. InEgypt medicine and healing were connected to the gods. Tomb paintingsand several papyrus documents describe the developing state ofEgyptian medicine, pharmacy, and surgery.

Greekphysicians admired and sought to learn the skills of the Egyptians.However, the early Greek doctor Hippocrates (460–370 BC),called the “Father of Medicine,” is credited with beingthe first physician to reject the belief that supernatural or divineforces cause illness. He argued that disease is the result ofenvironmental factors, diet, and living habits, not a punishmentimposed by the gods.

Itis clear that the biblical world shared with the ancient Near Eastthe same types of maladies common to tropical or subtropicalclimates. These include malaria, tropical fevers, dysentery, andsunstroke. The tendency of the hot climate to produce frequentdroughts and famine certainly contributed to similar types ofdiseases throughout the Fertile Crescent. Additionally, it must beremembered that Palestine was a land bridge between the Mesopotamianand Egyptian worlds. Migrations carry not only goods and products,but also parasites, communicable disease, and epidemics.

BiblicalConcept of Disease

Thereligious tradition of the Hebrews repudiated the magical or demonicorigin of disease. Hence, moral, ethical, and spiritual factorsregulated disease and illness. This was true for the individual aswell as the community. The Hebrews, like the Egyptians, alsorecognized that much sickness arose from the individual’srelationship to the physical environment. Great stress was placed onhygiene and preventive medicine.

Pentateuchallegislation offered seven covenantal principles designed to preventthe possibility of disease and sickness: (1)Sabbath observancefor humans, animals, and the land, which enforced regular periods ofrest (Gen. 2:3); (2)dietary regulations, which divided foodinto efficient categories of clean and unclean (Lev. 11);(3)circumcision, which carried physical benefits as well asreligious and moral implications (Gen. 17:9; circumcision is the onlyexample of Hebrew surgery); (4)laws governing sexualrelationships and health, including a list of forbidden degrees ofmarital relationships (Lev. 18–20); (5)provisions forindividual sexual hygiene (Lev. 15); (6)stipulations forcleanliness and bodily purification (Lev. 14:2; 15:2); (7) sanitaryand hygienic regulations for camp life (Num. 31:19; Deut. 23:12).

InNT times magical charms and incantations were used along with folkremedies in an effort to cure disease. Jesus repudiated these means.He also suggested that sickness and disease were not directpunishments for sin (John 9:2). In the Sermon on the Mount (Matt.5–7), Jesus confirmed that the ethical and religious standardsof the new covenant promoted the total health of the community andthe individual.

CirculatoryDiseases

Nabalmost likely suffered a cerebrovascular accident or stroke (1Sam.25:36–38). After a heavy bout of drinking, his heart “died”(KJV; NIV: “failed”), and he became paralyzed, lapsedinto a coma, and died ten days later. Psalm 137:5–6 may containa clinical example of the symptoms of stroke. The psalmist wrote, “IfI forget you, Jerusalem, may my right hand forget its skill. May mytongue cling to the roof of my mouth if I do not remember you.”This description points to a paralysis of the right side of the body(right hemiplegia) and the loss of speech (motor aphasia) that resultfrom a stroke on the left side of the brain. Basically, the exiledpsalmist is wishing upon himself the effects of a stroke if he heldanything other than Jerusalem as his highest priority. Some haveconsidered the collapse of Uzzah when he reached out to stabilize theark of the covenant (2Sam. 6:6–7) to be the consequenceof an apoplectic seizure. But since no actual paralysis was describedand death occurred immediately, this seems unlikely. It is moreprobable that God struck him down with an aortic aneurism or acoronary thrombosis.

Paralysis

Apossible case of paralysis may be described in the shriveled(atrophic) hand of JeroboamI (1Kings 13:4–6). In anangry outburst Jeroboam ordered the arrest of a prophet who condemnedthe altar at Bethel. When Jeroboam stretched out his hand, it“shriveled up, so that he could not pull it back.”Several complicated diagnoses have been offered to explain the“withered” hand, but it is possibly an example ofcataplexy, a sudden loss of muscle power following a strong emotionalstimulus. After intercession by the man of God, and the subsiding ofthe emotional outburst, the arm was restored.

Thethreat against the faithless shepherd of God’s people (Zech.11:17), which included a withered arm and blindness in the right eye,may refer to a form of paralysis known as tabes dorsalis, orlocomotor ataxia. Knifelike pains in the extremities and blindnesscharacterize this disease.

Paralysisis frequently mentioned in the NT (Matt. 8:6; 9:2, 6; 12:10; Mark2:3–5, 9, 10; 3:1, 3, 5; Luke 5:18, 24; 6:6; John 5:3; Acts9:33; Heb. 12:12). The exact diagnosis for each of these casesremains uncertain.

Thephysician Luke’s use of the Greek medical term paralelymenos(Luke 5:18, 24) suggests that some of these cases were caused bychronic organic disease. Others clearly were congenital (Acts 3:2;cf. 14:8). It is not necessary to rationalize the origin of theseexamples of paralysis as hysteria or pretense. The NT writersregarded the healing of these individuals by Jesus and the apostlesas miraculous.

MentalIllness and Brain Disorders

Casesof mental disease are generally described in the Bible by noting thesymptoms produced by the disorder. The particular cause of a mentalillness in the NT is often blamed on an unknown evil spirit orspirits (Luke 8:2). Such spirits, however, were subject to God’scontrol and operated only within the boundaries allowed by him(1Sam. 16:14–16, 23; 18:10; 19:9). Accordingly, in the OT“madness” and “confusion of mind” wereregarded as consequences of covenantal disobedience (Deut. 28:28,34).

Ithas been argued that King Saul displayed early indications ofpersonality disorder. Symptoms included pride, self-aggrandizement(1Sam. 11:6; 13:12; 15:9, 19), and ecstatic behavior(10:11–12). A rapid deterioration in Saul’s charactertranspired after David was anointed and became more popular (16:14;18:10–11). Since Saul demonstrated fear, jealousy, a sense ofpersecution, and homicidal tendencies, some scholars argue that hesuffered from paranoid schizophrenia.

Nebuchadnezzarsuffered a rare form of monomania in which he lived like a wild beastin the field eating grass (Dan. 4:33). David, in order to save hisown life, feigned insanity or perhaps epilepsy before the Philistineking Achish (1Sam. 21:12–15).

Inthe NT, individuals with mental disorders went about naked, mutilatedthemselves, lived in tombs (Mark 5:2), and exhibited violent behavior(Matt. 8:28). Such mental disorientation was often linked to demonpossession. Examples include the Syrophoenician’s child (Matt.15:22; Mark 7:25), the demoniacs at Gerasa (Matt. 8:28; Mark 5:2;Luke 8:27) and Capernaum (Mark 1:23; Luke 4:33), a blind and mutedemoniac (Matt. 12:22; Luke 11:14), and a fortune-telling slave girl(Acts 16:16). While such behavior is clinically suggestive ofparanoid schizophrenia or other mental disorders, themind-controlling influence of some extraneous negative force cannotbe ruled out.

Epilepsy(grand mal) causes the afflicted person to fall to the ground, foamat the mouth, and clench or grind the teeth (Matt. 17:15; Mark9:17–18; Luke 9:39). The description of Saul falling to theground in an ecstatic state (1Sam. 19:23–24) and Balaamfalling with open eyes may be indicative of an epileptic seizure. Inthe NT, Jesus healed many who suffered from epilepsy (Matt. 4:24;17:14–18; Mark 9:17–18; Luke 9:38–42). Somescholars have linked the light seen by Paul on the road to Damascuswith the aura that some epileptics experience prior to a seizure. Hissubsequent blindness has also been attributed to the epilepticdisturbance of the circulation of the blood in the brain.

ChildhoodDiseases

Thecause of the death of the widow’s son at Zarephath is unknown(1Kings 17:17–22). The death of the Shunammite woman’sson has been attributed to sunstroke (2Kings 4:18–37),although a headache is the only symptom recorded (v.19). Inboth cases there is too little evidence to present an accuratediagnosis.

Inthe first case, the boy at Zarephath stopped breathing (1Kings17:17). This may leave the door open to argue that Elijahresuscitated the child. However, in the second case, the text clearlystates that the Shunammite boy died (2Kings 4:20), implying aresurrection.

Infectiousand Communicable Diseases

Feverand other calamities are listed among the punishments for covenantalinfidelity (Deut. 28:22). Three different types of fever may beintentionally described here: “fever,” “inflammation,”and “scorching heat” (ESV: “fiery heat”).Fever is also mentioned frequently in the NT (Matt. 8:15; Mark1:30–31; Luke 4:38–39; John 4:52; Acts 28:8). Both Jesusand Paul healed individuals who had a fever. A number of these feverswere likely caused by malaria, since the disease was known to beendemic to the Jordan Valley and other marshy areas in Palestine.

Severalepidemics in which numerous people died of pestilence or plague arementioned in the OT (Exod. 11:1; 12:13; Num. 14:37; Zech. 14:12). Thefifth plague of Egypt (Exod. 9:3–6) has been attributed toJordan Rift Valley fever, which is spread by flies. Bubonic plaguehas been blamed for the malady that struck the Philistines (1Sam.5–6). However, it may have been the result of a severe form oftropical dysentery. Acute bacillary dysentery contracted in themilitary camp may also have been responsible for the epidemic thatkilled a large number of the Assyrian army (2Kings 19:35).

ParasiticDiseases

Somescholars have repeatedly argued that the “fiery serpents”(NIV: “venomous snakes”) encountered by Moses and thechildren of Israel (Num. 21:6–9) were in reality an infestationof the parasitic guinea worm (Dracunculus medinensis). Microscopicfleas ingested in drinking water carry the larvae of this slendernematode into the body. The larvae move from the digestive tract tothe skin. The adult worm, which may grow to a length of several feet,discharges its eggs into an ulcer on the skin. Death of the hostoccurs because of the resulting infection of the skin ulcers.

Afterthe conquest of Jericho, Joshua cursed the individual who wouldendeavor to rebuild the city (Josh. 6:26). Later, Hiel of Bethelattempted to rebuild the city and lost two of his sons as a result ofthe curse (1Kings 16:34). Elisha was then asked to purify thebad water at Jericho in order to allow a new settlement (2Kings2:19). Elisha obliged by throwing salt into the spring and therebymaking the water potable (2:20–22). Recent archaeological studyhas discovered the remains of certain snails in the mud-bricks usedto construct Jericho in the Bronze Age. These types of snails are nowknown to serve as intermediate hosts for the flatworm parasite thatcan cause schistosomiasis. The Schistosoma haematobium trematodeinfects the urinary tract and the bladder. It is possible that thistype of parasite was responsible for the death of Hiel’s twosons.

InNT times, Herod Agrippa apparently died of the complications of aparasitic disease, perhaps being infested by the larvae of flies(myiasis) in the bowels. Luke mentions that he was “eaten byworms” (skōlēkobrōtos [Acts 12:23]). The fatherof Publius also suffered from dysentery (Acts 28:8).

PhysicalDeformities and Abnormalities

Individualswith deformities were disqualified from priestly service (Lev.21:18–20). The list included lameness, limb damage, anddwarfism. The deformities mentioned here might have been congenitalor acquired. Mephibosheth was dropped by his nurse (2 Sam. 4:4) andperhaps suffered damage to the spinal cord. Jacob possibly sustainedinjury to an intervertebral disk (Gen. 32:32) causing a deformity anda limp. The woman who was “bent over” (Luke 13:10–17)might have suffered from an abnormality of the spine similar toscoliosis. It is difficult to ascertain the origin of the “shriveledhand” of the unnamed individual healed by Jesus (Matt.12:10–13; Mark 3:1–5; Luke 6:6–10). It could becongenital in character or a paralysis caused by any number offactors.

Diseasesand Disabilities of the Eyes and Ears

Physicalblindness is mentioned several times in the Bible. Blindness excludedone from serving as a priest (Lev. 21:18, 20). Blindness anddeafness, however, were disabilities requiring special care from thecommunity (Lev. 19:14; Deut. 27:18). The “weak eyes” ofLeah may refer to an eye condition (Gen. 29:17).

Blindnessin the biblical world was caused by various factors. Leviticus 26:16speaks of a fever that destroys the eyes. Flies probably wereresponsible for much of the conjunctivitis found in children. John9:1 mentions congenital blindness, which Jesus cured using mud madefrom spittle and dirt (John 9:6). In Mark 8:22–26 Jesus healeda blind man by spitting in his eye and laying hands on him (cf. Matt.20:34 with Mark10:52).

Congenitaldeafness would also be associated with mutism and speech defectsbecause a child learning to speak depends on imitation and mimicry.Jesus healed a man who was deaf and could barely talk (Mark 7:32–37).The man’s inability to say much possibly pointed to a loss ofhearing early in life.

SkinConditions

Variousskin and hair abnormalities are described in the Bible. Some made theindividual unclean (Lev. 13:30; 14:54). The OT speaks of “theboils of Egypt” (Deut. 28:27; cf. Exod. 9:9). Skin ailmentsincluded tumors, festering sores, boils, infections, and the itch(Deut. 28:27, 35; Isa. 3:7). Job complained of a litany of ailments:broken and festering skin (7:5), multiple wounds (9:17), blackpeeling skin and fever (30:30), gnawing bone pain (2:5; 19:20;30:17), insomnia (7:3–4), and wasting away (33:21). Thesesymptoms have been diagnosed as indications of yaws or eczema. Apoultice made of figs cured Hezekiah’s boil (2Kings20:7).

Leprosywas once thought to be a common problem in the biblical world.Leprosy (Hansen’s disease) is a slow, progressive chronicinfectious disease caused by a bacterium. Symptoms include loss ofsensation and loss of parts of the body. Evidence for this type ofdisease in Palestine is rare. Uzziah may have had a true case ofHansen’s disease. He was quarantined until the day he died(2Chron. 26:21).

Scholarsnow suggest that the symptoms of the disease described in the Bibledo not fit this pattern and thus do not signify leprosy (Hansen’sdisease) as it is known today. Instead, the word that Englishversions translate as “leprosy” (Heb. root tsr’)probably refers to different types of infectious skin disease, oftencharacterized by a long-standing, patchy skin condition associatedwith peeling or flakiness and redness of skin. Evidence points moretoward psoriasis, fungal infections, or dermatitis.

Thisdisease could appear in humans (Lev. 14:2), on buildings (14:34), andon clothing (14:55). It was not limited to the extremities but couldoccur on the head (14:42–44). It could run its course quickly(13:5–8). It made the individual ceremonially unclean, but itwas also curable (Lev. 14:3; 2Kings 5:1–27). Individualswith the disease were not necessarily shunned (2Kings 7; Matt.26:6// Mark 14:3). Moses (Exod. 4:6), Miriam (Num. 12:10), andNaaman experienced this type of skin disease (2Kings 5:1–27).Jesus healed many suffering from skin ailments (Matt. 8:2–3;Mark 1:40–42; Luke 5:12–13), including the ten “menwho had leprosy” (Luke 17:12–14).

Ailmentsof an Unknown Nature

Somecases in the Bible present insufficient evidence for scholars torender a clear diagnosis. King Asa suffered a disease in his feet(2Chron. 16:12). However, in the OT the Hebrew expression for“feet” is sometimes used euphemistically for the sexualorgans (Judg. 3:24 KJV). Because of this, the exact nature of thedisease is ambiguous. Jehoram was afflicted with “an incurabledisease of the bowels” (2Chron. 21:18–19). Otherunknown ailments factor in the deaths of the firstborn son of Davidand Bathsheba (2Sam. 12:15), of Jeroboam’s son in infancy(1Kings 14:17), of Elisha (2Kings 13:14), and ofEzekiel’s wife (Ezek. 24:16).

(Disabilities; Disability; Deformity; Deformities; Sickness]The Bible often speaks of health, healing, disease, andillness. Good health was a sign of God’s favor, and healing wasalso the work of God and his divinely empowered agents. These agentsincluded the prophets (1Kings 17:8–23; 2Kings5:1–15), the apostles (Acts 3:1–10), and the messiah(Mal. 4:2). The divine prerogative of Jesus was to heal (Mark 1:32;6:56; Matt. 4:23; 8:16; 15:30; 21:14; Luke 6:10, 17–19), andmiraculous healings were a sign of his messianic office (Luke7:20–23). Disease, on the other hand, was regarded as a sign ofGod’s disfavor. Within a covenantal context, God could senddisease to punish the sinner (Exod. 4:11; 32:35).

TheBible assigns a wide variety of names to various diseases and theirsymptoms. These terms are nontechnical and generally descriptive.Some are uncertain in meaning. In most cases they describe thesymptoms of the disease, not the disease itself. Diagnosis often wasbased on incomplete observation and nonclinical examination. TheBible also presupposes supernatural intervention in the life of aperson. Healing occurred when God’s agents touched individuals,cast out demons, and resurrected the dead.

AncientNear Eastern Influences

Inthe ancient Near East the knowledge of disease and medicine wasprecritical. Bacteria and viruses were virtually unknown.Mesopotamian literature contains many references to medicine,physicians, and medical practice. Minerals, salts, herbs, and otherbotanicals were used to make up treatments. Babylonian physiciansalso administered prescriptions accompanied by incantations. Diseasewas considered to be the result of a violation of a taboo orpossession by a demon. The Code of Hammurabi (1750 BC) includes lawsregulating the practice of medicine and surgery by physicians. InEgypt medicine and healing were connected to the gods. Tomb paintingsand several papyrus documents describe the developing state ofEgyptian medicine, pharmacy, and surgery.

Greekphysicians admired and sought to learn the skills of the Egyptians.However, the early Greek doctor Hippocrates (460–370 BC),called the “Father of Medicine,” is credited with beingthe first physician to reject the belief that supernatural or divineforces cause illness. He argued that disease is the result ofenvironmental factors, diet, and living habits, not a punishmentimposed by the gods.

Itis clear that the biblical world shared with the ancient Near Eastthe same types of maladies common to tropical or subtropicalclimates. These include malaria, tropical fevers, dysentery, andsunstroke. The tendency of the hot climate to produce frequentdroughts and famine certainly contributed to similar types ofdiseases throughout the Fertile Crescent. Additionally, it must beremembered that Palestine was a land bridge between the Mesopotamianand Egyptian worlds. Migrations carry not only goods and products,but also parasites, communicable disease, and epidemics.

BiblicalConcept of Disease

Thereligious tradition of the Hebrews repudiated the magical or demonicorigin of disease. Hence, moral, ethical, and spiritual factorsregulated disease and illness. This was true for the individual aswell as the community. The Hebrews, like the Egyptians, alsorecognized that much sickness arose from the individual’srelationship to the physical environment. Great stress was placed onhygiene and preventive medicine.

Pentateuchallegislation offered seven covenantal principles designed to preventthe possibility of disease and sickness: (1)Sabbath observancefor humans, animals, and the land, which enforced regular periods ofrest (Gen. 2:3); (2)dietary regulations, which divided foodinto efficient categories of clean and unclean (Lev. 11);(3)circumcision, which carried physical benefits as well asreligious and moral implications (Gen. 17:9; circumcision is the onlyexample of Hebrew surgery); (4)laws governing sexualrelationships and health, including a list of forbidden degrees ofmarital relationships (Lev. 18–20); (5)provisions forindividual sexual hygiene (Lev. 15); (6)stipulations forcleanliness and bodily purification (Lev. 14:2; 15:2); (7) sanitaryand hygienic regulations for camp life (Num. 31:19; Deut. 23:12).

InNT times magical charms and incantations were used along with folkremedies in an effort to cure disease. Jesus repudiated these means.He also suggested that sickness and disease were not directpunishments for sin (John 9:2). In the Sermon on the Mount (Matt.5–7), Jesus confirmed that the ethical and religious standardsof the new covenant promoted the total health of the community andthe individual.

CirculatoryDiseases

Nabalmost likely suffered a cerebrovascular accident or stroke (1Sam.25:36–38). After a heavy bout of drinking, his heart “died”(KJV; NIV: “failed”), and he became paralyzed, lapsedinto a coma, and died ten days later. Psalm 137:5–6 may containa clinical example of the symptoms of stroke. The psalmist wrote, “IfI forget you, Jerusalem, may my right hand forget its skill. May mytongue cling to the roof of my mouth if I do not remember you.”This description points to a paralysis of the right side of the body(right hemiplegia) and the loss of speech (motor aphasia) that resultfrom a stroke on the left side of the brain. Basically, the exiledpsalmist is wishing upon himself the effects of a stroke if he heldanything other than Jerusalem as his highest priority. Some haveconsidered the collapse of Uzzah when he reached out to stabilize theark of the covenant (2Sam. 6:6–7) to be the consequenceof an apoplectic seizure. But since no actual paralysis was describedand death occurred immediately, this seems unlikely. It is moreprobable that God struck him down with an aortic aneurism or acoronary thrombosis.

Paralysis

Apossible case of paralysis may be described in the shriveled(atrophic) hand of JeroboamI (1Kings 13:4–6). In anangry outburst Jeroboam ordered the arrest of a prophet who condemnedthe altar at Bethel. When Jeroboam stretched out his hand, it“shriveled up, so that he could not pull it back.”Several complicated diagnoses have been offered to explain the“withered” hand, but it is possibly an example ofcataplexy, a sudden loss of muscle power following a strong emotionalstimulus. After intercession by the man of God, and the subsiding ofthe emotional outburst, the arm was restored.

Thethreat against the faithless shepherd of God’s people (Zech.11:17), which included a withered arm and blindness in the right eye,may refer to a form of paralysis known as tabes dorsalis, orlocomotor ataxia. Knifelike pains in the extremities and blindnesscharacterize this disease.

Paralysisis frequently mentioned in the NT (Matt. 8:6; 9:2, 6; 12:10; Mark2:3–5, 9, 10; 3:1, 3, 5; Luke 5:18, 24; 6:6; John 5:3; Acts9:33; Heb. 12:12). The exact diagnosis for each of these casesremains uncertain.

Thephysician Luke’s use of the Greek medical term paralelymenos(Luke 5:18, 24) suggests that some of these cases were caused bychronic organic disease. Others clearly were congenital (Acts 3:2;cf. 14:8). It is not necessary to rationalize the origin of theseexamples of paralysis as hysteria or pretense. The NT writersregarded the healing of these individuals by Jesus and the apostlesas miraculous.

MentalIllness and Brain Disorders

Casesof mental disease are generally described in the Bible by noting thesymptoms produced by the disorder. The particular cause of a mentalillness in the NT is often blamed on an unknown evil spirit orspirits (Luke 8:2). Such spirits, however, were subject to God’scontrol and operated only within the boundaries allowed by him(1Sam. 16:14–16, 23; 18:10; 19:9). Accordingly, in the OT“madness” and “confusion of mind” wereregarded as consequences of covenantal disobedience (Deut. 28:28,34).

Ithas been argued that King Saul displayed early indications ofpersonality disorder. Symptoms included pride, self-aggrandizement(1Sam. 11:6; 13:12; 15:9, 19), and ecstatic behavior(10:11–12). A rapid deterioration in Saul’s charactertranspired after David was anointed and became more popular (16:14;18:10–11). Since Saul demonstrated fear, jealousy, a sense ofpersecution, and homicidal tendencies, some scholars argue that hesuffered from paranoid schizophrenia.

Nebuchadnezzarsuffered a rare form of monomania in which he lived like a wild beastin the field eating grass (Dan. 4:33). David, in order to save hisown life, feigned insanity or perhaps epilepsy before the Philistineking Achish (1Sam. 21:12–15).

Inthe NT, individuals with mental disorders went about naked, mutilatedthemselves, lived in tombs (Mark 5:2), and exhibited violent behavior(Matt. 8:28). Such mental disorientation was often linked to demonpossession. Examples include the Syrophoenician’s child (Matt.15:22; Mark 7:25), the demoniacs at Gerasa (Matt. 8:28; Mark 5:2;Luke 8:27) and Capernaum (Mark 1:23; Luke 4:33), a blind and mutedemoniac (Matt. 12:22; Luke 11:14), and a fortune-telling slave girl(Acts 16:16). While such behavior is clinically suggestive ofparanoid schizophrenia or other mental disorders, themind-controlling influence of some extraneous negative force cannotbe ruled out.

Epilepsy(grand mal) causes the afflicted person to fall to the ground, foamat the mouth, and clench or grind the teeth (Matt. 17:15; Mark9:17–18; Luke 9:39). The description of Saul falling to theground in an ecstatic state (1Sam. 19:23–24) and Balaamfalling with open eyes may be indicative of an epileptic seizure. Inthe NT, Jesus healed many who suffered from epilepsy (Matt. 4:24;17:14–18; Mark 9:17–18; Luke 9:38–42). Somescholars have linked the light seen by Paul on the road to Damascuswith the aura that some epileptics experience prior to a seizure. Hissubsequent blindness has also been attributed to the epilepticdisturbance of the circulation of the blood in the brain.

ChildhoodDiseases

Thecause of the death of the widow’s son at Zarephath is unknown(1Kings 17:17–22). The death of the Shunammite woman’sson has been attributed to sunstroke (2Kings 4:18–37),although a headache is the only symptom recorded (v.19). Inboth cases there is too little evidence to present an accuratediagnosis.

Inthe first case, the boy at Zarephath stopped breathing (1Kings17:17). This may leave the door open to argue that Elijahresuscitated the child. However, in the second case, the text clearlystates that the Shunammite boy died (2Kings 4:20), implying aresurrection.

Infectiousand Communicable Diseases

Feverand other calamities are listed among the punishments for covenantalinfidelity (Deut. 28:22). Three different types of fever may beintentionally described here: “fever,” “inflammation,”and “scorching heat” (ESV: “fiery heat”).Fever is also mentioned frequently in the NT (Matt. 8:15; Mark1:30–31; Luke 4:38–39; John 4:52; Acts 28:8). Both Jesusand Paul healed individuals who had a fever. A number of these feverswere likely caused by malaria, since the disease was known to beendemic to the Jordan Valley and other marshy areas in Palestine.

Severalepidemics in which numerous people died of pestilence or plague arementioned in the OT (Exod. 11:1; 12:13; Num. 14:37; Zech. 14:12). Thefifth plague of Egypt (Exod. 9:3–6) has been attributed toJordan Rift Valley fever, which is spread by flies. Bubonic plaguehas been blamed for the malady that struck the Philistines (1Sam.5–6). However, it may have been the result of a severe form oftropical dysentery. Acute bacillary dysentery contracted in themilitary camp may also have been responsible for the epidemic thatkilled a large number of the Assyrian army (2Kings 19:35).

ParasiticDiseases

Somescholars have repeatedly argued that the “fiery serpents”(NIV: “venomous snakes”) encountered by Moses and thechildren of Israel (Num. 21:6–9) were in reality an infestationof the parasitic guinea worm (Dracunculus medinensis). Microscopicfleas ingested in drinking water carry the larvae of this slendernematode into the body. The larvae move from the digestive tract tothe skin. The adult worm, which may grow to a length of several feet,discharges its eggs into an ulcer on the skin. Death of the hostoccurs because of the resulting infection of the skin ulcers.

Afterthe conquest of Jericho, Joshua cursed the individual who wouldendeavor to rebuild the city (Josh. 6:26). Later, Hiel of Bethelattempted to rebuild the city and lost two of his sons as a result ofthe curse (1Kings 16:34). Elisha was then asked to purify thebad water at Jericho in order to allow a new settlement (2Kings2:19). Elisha obliged by throwing salt into the spring and therebymaking the water potable (2:20–22). Recent archaeological studyhas discovered the remains of certain snails in the mud-bricks usedto construct Jericho in the Bronze Age. These types of snails are nowknown to serve as intermediate hosts for the flatworm parasite thatcan cause schistosomiasis. The Schistosoma haematobium trematodeinfects the urinary tract and the bladder. It is possible that thistype of parasite was responsible for the death of Hiel’s twosons.

InNT times, Herod Agrippa apparently died of the complications of aparasitic disease, perhaps being infested by the larvae of flies(myiasis) in the bowels. Luke mentions that he was “eaten byworms” (skōlēkobrōtos [Acts 12:23]). The fatherof Publius also suffered from dysentery (Acts 28:8).

PhysicalDeformities and Abnormalities

Individualswith deformities were disqualified from priestly service (Lev.21:18–20). The list included lameness, limb damage, anddwarfism. The deformities mentioned here might have been congenitalor acquired. Mephibosheth was dropped by his nurse (2 Sam. 4:4) andperhaps suffered damage to the spinal cord. Jacob possibly sustainedinjury to an intervertebral disk (Gen. 32:32) causing a deformity anda limp. The woman who was “bent over” (Luke 13:10–17)might have suffered from an abnormality of the spine similar toscoliosis. It is difficult to ascertain the origin of the “shriveledhand” of the unnamed individual healed by Jesus (Matt.12:10–13; Mark 3:1–5; Luke 6:6–10). It could becongenital in character or a paralysis caused by any number offactors.

Diseasesand Disabilities of the Eyes and Ears

Physicalblindness is mentioned several times in the Bible. Blindness excludedone from serving as a priest (Lev. 21:18, 20). Blindness anddeafness, however, were disabilities requiring special care from thecommunity (Lev. 19:14; Deut. 27:18). The “weak eyes” ofLeah may refer to an eye condition (Gen. 29:17).

Blindnessin the biblical world was caused by various factors. Leviticus 26:16speaks of a fever that destroys the eyes. Flies probably wereresponsible for much of the conjunctivitis found in children. John9:1 mentions congenital blindness, which Jesus cured using mud madefrom spittle and dirt (John 9:6). In Mark 8:22–26 Jesus healeda blind man by spitting in his eye and laying hands on him (cf. Matt.20:34 with Mark10:52).

Congenitaldeafness would also be associated with mutism and speech defectsbecause a child learning to speak depends on imitation and mimicry.Jesus healed a man who was deaf and could barely talk (Mark 7:32–37).The man’s inability to say much possibly pointed to a loss ofhearing early in life.

SkinConditions

Variousskin and hair abnormalities are described in the Bible. Some made theindividual unclean (Lev. 13:30; 14:54). The OT speaks of “theboils of Egypt” (Deut. 28:27; cf. Exod. 9:9). Skin ailmentsincluded tumors, festering sores, boils, infections, and the itch(Deut. 28:27, 35; Isa. 3:7). Job complained of a litany of ailments:broken and festering skin (7:5), multiple wounds (9:17), blackpeeling skin and fever (30:30), gnawing bone pain (2:5; 19:20;30:17), insomnia (7:3–4), and wasting away (33:21). Thesesymptoms have been diagnosed as indications of yaws or eczema. Apoultice made of figs cured Hezekiah’s boil (2Kings20:7).

Leprosywas once thought to be a common problem in the biblical world.Leprosy (Hansen’s disease) is a slow, progressive chronicinfectious disease caused by a bacterium. Symptoms include loss ofsensation and loss of parts of the body. Evidence for this type ofdisease in Palestine is rare. Uzziah may have had a true case ofHansen’s disease. He was quarantined until the day he died(2Chron. 26:21).

Scholarsnow suggest that the symptoms of the disease described in the Bibledo not fit this pattern and thus do not signify leprosy (Hansen’sdisease) as it is known today. Instead, the word that Englishversions translate as “leprosy” (Heb. root tsr’)probably refers to different types of infectious skin disease, oftencharacterized by a long-standing, patchy skin condition associatedwith peeling or flakiness and redness of skin. Evidence points moretoward psoriasis, fungal infections, or dermatitis.

Thisdisease could appear in humans (Lev. 14:2), on buildings (14:34), andon clothing (14:55). It was not limited to the extremities but couldoccur on the head (14:42–44). It could run its course quickly(13:5–8). It made the individual ceremonially unclean, but itwas also curable (Lev. 14:3; 2Kings 5:1–27). Individualswith the disease were not necessarily shunned (2Kings 7; Matt.26:6// Mark 14:3). Moses (Exod. 4:6), Miriam (Num. 12:10), andNaaman experienced this type of skin disease (2Kings 5:1–27).Jesus healed many suffering from skin ailments (Matt. 8:2–3;Mark 1:40–42; Luke 5:12–13), including the ten “menwho had leprosy” (Luke 17:12–14).

Ailmentsof an Unknown Nature

Somecases in the Bible present insufficient evidence for scholars torender a clear diagnosis. King Asa suffered a disease in his feet(2Chron. 16:12). However, in the OT the Hebrew expression for“feet” is sometimes used euphemistically for the sexualorgans (Judg. 3:24 KJV). Because of this, the exact nature of thedisease is ambiguous. Jehoram was afflicted with “an incurabledisease of the bowels” (2Chron. 21:18–19). Otherunknown ailments factor in the deaths of the firstborn son of Davidand Bathsheba (2Sam. 12:15), of Jeroboam’s son in infancy(1Kings 14:17), of Elisha (2Kings 13:14), and ofEzekiel’s wife (Ezek. 24:16).

To seek guidance from God. In the OT, this usually was donethrough an intermediary such as a prophet, priest, or seer (Exod.18:15; Judg. 18:5; 1Sam. 9:9; 22:15; 2Kings 8:8; 22:18;Jer. 37:7). The priests could also inquire of God through the use ofthe ephod and the Urim and Thummim, which were God-ordained lots(Num. 27:21; 1Sam. 23:9–13; 28:6). Warfare, health, andgovernance were primary concerns for inquiries to God but were by nomeans the only issues (1Sam. 23:2; 2Sam. 5:23; 2Kings3:11; 2Chron. 18:4, 6–7). Of course, inquiring of God didnot guarantee a favorable answer or any answer at all (Ezek. 20:3).Only certain avenues of inquiry were acceptable to God. For example,the Israelites were prohibited from consulting wizards, mediums, andnecromancers (Deut. 18:10–11; 1Sam. 28:3, 7). Naturally,the Israelites were forbidden to inquire of other deities, such asBaal-Zebub, and doing so had harmful consequences (2Kings1:2–6). Although people were dependent on God’sself-revelation, God did not need to wait on them to inquire. Hecould communicate in dreams, visions, by sending a prophet or anangel, or more directly (Gen. 20:3; Exod.3:2).

Theavenues to inquiring of God changed with the advent of Jesus and theloss of the second temple. This change was foreshadowed in Jesus’conversation with the Samaritan woman in John 4. Previously, accessto God involved seeking him at the proper place. With no temple,access to God was severely limited. As a result, in rabbinic Judaism,Torah study and interpretation became the primary means for inquiringof God. In the NT, when Christ’s death tore in half thetemple’s curtain, and when the Spirit came, access to Godbecame open to all who were believers (Matt. 27:51; Acts 1:5, 8;2:33; Heb. 6:19–20). Thus, for the disciple of Jesus, toinquire of God is as simple as asking (John 11:22; James 1:5).

A Jewish prophet at the time of Jesus, he was the son ofpriestly parents (Zechariah and Elizabeth), executed by HerodAntipas, and identified as “John” (a common Jewish name),often with the title “the Baptist” or “theBaptizer,” the latter possibly being the older title.

Ourprimary sources on John the Baptist are the canonical Gospels,Josephus (Ant. 18.116–19), and Acts. Both Jewish and Christiansources note John’s message of the kingdom, call to baptism,and popularity. Josephus and the Gospels can speak of him withoutintroduction. In the Gospels, only Jesus is a more prominentcharacter. It is possible that the typical peasant was more familiarwith John than with Jesus, at least until after Pentecost.

TheGospels, particularly Luke, parallel the stories of John and Jesus.Both had an annunciation, a miraculous birth accompanied by praise,and a martyr’s death. Both gathered disciples, announced thekingdom, denounced the Jewish leadership, and practiced baptism. Itis easy to see how some on the periphery confused the characters(Mark 8:28).

Ministry

Dressedin a prophet’s garment of camel’s hair (Matt. 3:4; cf.2Kings 1:8; Zech. 13:4), the Baptist is noted for emerging fromthe wilderness and preaching near the Jordan. He called all listenersto repent to prepare Israel for the coming covenant of the Spirit. Heand his message were well known, disconcerting Jerusalem’spowerful elite (Mark 11:32) and enthralling the masses (Matt. 3:5–6).

Johnthe Baptist unwaveringly maintained that he was sent to introduce theSon (or Chosen One) of God, who would baptize with the Holy Spirit(John 1:33–34; cf. Matt. 3:11–12 pars.). This one was notnamed, but the Baptist was told how he would know him: “The manon whom you see the Spirit come down and remain is the one”(John 1:33). Thus, the Baptist could claim, “I myself did notknow him” (John 1:31), more likely meaning that the Baptist didnot know Jesus was the one until the Spirit descended on him (1:32).It is less likely that John meant that he had not met his cousinpreviously (Luke 1:39–45). Jesus accepts (and validates) theBaptist’s proclamation both at the beginning of his ministry(Mark 1:9) and again later (Luke 16:16; John 5:35; 10:41).

Afterhis imprisonment, the Baptist seems less certain of his earlieridentification of Jesus as the coming one (Matt. 11:2–3). Itshould also be noted that John had not disbanded his disciples. Afterhis death, some continued to preach his baptism of repentance as faraway as in Ephesus (Acts 18:24–26; 19:1–7). Similarly,Jesus’ last description of the Baptist is ambiguous. It isguarded but still complimentary (John 5:32–36; 10:41) and evenlofty: “Among those born of women there has not arisen anyonegreater than John the Baptist”; however, Jesus’ nextstatement could be interpreted to mean that the Baptist was not yetpart of the coming kingdom: “Yet whoever is least in thekingdom of heaven is greater than he” (Matt. 11:11). Likeeveryone else, John was confused by Jesus’ preaching ministry.Jesus was not acting like the Messiah they were expecting (Luke7:18–20). The Gospels offer no final verdict on the Baptist.

Message

LikeIsaiah, the Baptist’s message of restoration of the kingdommeant comfort and hope for those preparing for its arrival (Isa. 40;Mark 1:2–6) and judgment for those unprepared (Isa. 41; Matt.3:7–10; Luke 3:7–9). The return of the kingdom was by anew covenant, marked by the Spirit (Mark 1:2–8). Cleansing withwater is connected to replacing the old covenant (etched in stone)with the new (imbedded in hearts with the Spirit) by the prophets(Ezek. 36:24–28; Jer. 31), by the Baptist (John 1:31–33),by Jesus (John 3:5), and by early Christians (2Cor. 3; Heb.9–10). Preparing (Matt. 3:3) meant repenting and living inpiety and justice as a member of the kingdom (Luke 3:10–14).This commitment of renewed faithfulness was marked by one’s own(ethical) cleansing, symbolized in baptism. While ritual lustrationswere somewhat common for initiation or membership in a group, Johnthe Baptist called all who would devote themselves to God to repent,confess their sins, and be baptized (Mark 1:4–5).

TheSynoptic Gospels portray Jesus and John as allies in announcing thekingdom. It has been argued that the Fourth Gospel has ananti-Baptist polemic. Because of historical elements (in Ephesus?),it may be more accurate to say that the Fourth Gospel strives toclarify the Baptist’s place in salvation history. He issubordinate to Jesus by divine design (John 1–5) and by deed(John 10:41). He was the Elijah who was to come before the Christ(Matt. 11:14).

Laying hands on someone/something has two literal uses andtwo with symbolic significance. (1)Literally, to take something(e.g., Exod. 22:8–11; Esther 9:10–16; Matt. 26:51; Luke9:62) or someone—that is, to make an arrest (e.g., Neh. 13:21;Matt. 26:50; Mark 14:46; Luke 20:19; 21:12; 22:53; John 7:30, 44;Acts 4:3; 5:18; 12:1; 21:27). (2)Literally, to lay hands onpersons (or things) so as to hurt or destroy them (e.g., Gen. 22:12;37:22; 1Sam. 22:17; 24:5–13; 26:9–23; Job 1:12;9:33; Isa. 11:14; Jer. 15:6; Ezek. 39:21). (3)Laying a handover one’s mouth as a symbolic gesture of amazement (Mic. 7:16)or humility (Job 40:4). (4)A gesture to symbolize the transferof something from one person to another. Transfer symbolismapplications include the transfer of representative identity insacrificing (e.g., Exod. 29:10–19; Lev. 1:4; 16:21; Num.8:10–12; 2Chron. 29:23–24), of authority incommissioning (ordination) (e.g., Num. 27:18–23; Deut. 34:9;Acts 6:6; 13:3), of blessing (e.g., Gen. 48:13–20; Matt.19:13–15), of life and health (e.g., Matt. 8:3, 15; 9:18, 25,29; 20:34; Mark 6:5; 7:32–33; 8:22–26; 16:18; Luke 4:40;7:14; 13:13; 22:51; Acts 8:17; 9:12, 17; 28:8), and of the HolySpirit and spiritual gifting (Acts 8:17–19; 9:17; 19:6; 1Tim.4:14; 2Tim. 1:6).

Threeadditional things should be noted about this transfer symbolism.First, the laying on of hands is symbolic rather than purelycausative. This is evidenced when Jesus and the apostles creditfaith, and not mere touch, for healings (e.g., Matt. 9:22, 29–30;Luke 17:19; Acts 3:12–16; 14:9; cf. Matt. 13:58), when healingsoccur from a distance (e.g., Matt. 8:5–13; 15:21–28; John4:46–54) and/or with no apparent touch involved (e.g., Matt.8:28–34; 9:1–8, 32–33; 12:22; 17:14–21; Mark1:23–28; Luke 17:11–19; John 5:1–9; 11:1–44;Acts 5:15; 9:32–35, 40–41; 14:8–10; 16:18), whenthe Holy Spirit comes upon people without touch (e.g., Acts10:44–45), and when Peter strongly rebukes Simon Magus forassuming that the Holy Spirit is dispensed by mere touch (Acts8:17–24).

Second,the early church used the laying on of hands for commissioning churchworkers (Acts 6:6), missionaries (Acts 13:3),and elders (Acts 14:23 [the Greek word used for “appointing,”cheirotoneō, is derivedfrom the words for “extend,” teinō, and “hand,”cheir; cf. 2Cor. 8:19). Since the act was conducted by apostles(Acts 6:6), by prophets and teachers (Acts 13:1–3), byPaul and Barnabas (Acts 14:23; 2Tim. 1:6), and by church elders(1Tim. 4:14), we may conclude that the early church had noestablished hierarchy for ordination.

Third,the NT has some guidelines for commissioning Christian workers (cf.Heb. 6:2). Church leaders have weighty responsibilities (Acts 20:28;1Tim. 3:1–13; 5:17; Titus 1:5–9; 1Pet.5:1–4), so it is not surprising that a church elder/overseermust not be a recent convert (1Tim. 3:6) or hastily ordained(1Tim. 5:22), and that a deacon must first be tested (1Tim.3:10).

(Disabilities; Disability; Deformity; Deformities; Sickness]The Bible often speaks of health, healing, disease, andillness. Good health was a sign of God’s favor, and healing wasalso the work of God and his divinely empowered agents. These agentsincluded the prophets (1Kings 17:8–23; 2Kings5:1–15), the apostles (Acts 3:1–10), and the messiah(Mal. 4:2). The divine prerogative of Jesus was to heal (Mark 1:32;6:56; Matt. 4:23; 8:16; 15:30; 21:14; Luke 6:10, 17–19), andmiraculous healings were a sign of his messianic office (Luke7:20–23). Disease, on the other hand, was regarded as a sign ofGod’s disfavor. Within a covenantal context, God could senddisease to punish the sinner (Exod. 4:11; 32:35).

TheBible assigns a wide variety of names to various diseases and theirsymptoms. These terms are nontechnical and generally descriptive.Some are uncertain in meaning. In most cases they describe thesymptoms of the disease, not the disease itself. Diagnosis often wasbased on incomplete observation and nonclinical examination. TheBible also presupposes supernatural intervention in the life of aperson. Healing occurred when God’s agents touched individuals,cast out demons, and resurrected the dead.

AncientNear Eastern Influences

Inthe ancient Near East the knowledge of disease and medicine wasprecritical. Bacteria and viruses were virtually unknown.Mesopotamian literature contains many references to medicine,physicians, and medical practice. Minerals, salts, herbs, and otherbotanicals were used to make up treatments. Babylonian physiciansalso administered prescriptions accompanied by incantations. Diseasewas considered to be the result of a violation of a taboo orpossession by a demon. The Code of Hammurabi (1750 BC) includes lawsregulating the practice of medicine and surgery by physicians. InEgypt medicine and healing were connected to the gods. Tomb paintingsand several papyrus documents describe the developing state ofEgyptian medicine, pharmacy, and surgery.

Greekphysicians admired and sought to learn the skills of the Egyptians.However, the early Greek doctor Hippocrates (460–370 BC),called the “Father of Medicine,” is credited with beingthe first physician to reject the belief that supernatural or divineforces cause illness. He argued that disease is the result ofenvironmental factors, diet, and living habits, not a punishmentimposed by the gods.

Itis clear that the biblical world shared with the ancient Near Eastthe same types of maladies common to tropical or subtropicalclimates. These include malaria, tropical fevers, dysentery, andsunstroke. The tendency of the hot climate to produce frequentdroughts and famine certainly contributed to similar types ofdiseases throughout the Fertile Crescent. Additionally, it must beremembered that Palestine was a land bridge between the Mesopotamianand Egyptian worlds. Migrations carry not only goods and products,but also parasites, communicable disease, and epidemics.

BiblicalConcept of Disease

Thereligious tradition of the Hebrews repudiated the magical or demonicorigin of disease. Hence, moral, ethical, and spiritual factorsregulated disease and illness. This was true for the individual aswell as the community. The Hebrews, like the Egyptians, alsorecognized that much sickness arose from the individual’srelationship to the physical environment. Great stress was placed onhygiene and preventive medicine.

Pentateuchallegislation offered seven covenantal principles designed to preventthe possibility of disease and sickness: (1)Sabbath observancefor humans, animals, and the land, which enforced regular periods ofrest (Gen. 2:3); (2)dietary regulations, which divided foodinto efficient categories of clean and unclean (Lev. 11);(3)circumcision, which carried physical benefits as well asreligious and moral implications (Gen. 17:9; circumcision is the onlyexample of Hebrew surgery); (4)laws governing sexualrelationships and health, including a list of forbidden degrees ofmarital relationships (Lev. 18–20); (5)provisions forindividual sexual hygiene (Lev. 15); (6)stipulations forcleanliness and bodily purification (Lev. 14:2; 15:2); (7) sanitaryand hygienic regulations for camp life (Num. 31:19; Deut. 23:12).

InNT times magical charms and incantations were used along with folkremedies in an effort to cure disease. Jesus repudiated these means.He also suggested that sickness and disease were not directpunishments for sin (John 9:2). In the Sermon on the Mount (Matt.5–7), Jesus confirmed that the ethical and religious standardsof the new covenant promoted the total health of the community andthe individual.

CirculatoryDiseases

Nabalmost likely suffered a cerebrovascular accident or stroke (1Sam.25:36–38). After a heavy bout of drinking, his heart “died”(KJV; NIV: “failed”), and he became paralyzed, lapsedinto a coma, and died ten days later. Psalm 137:5–6 may containa clinical example of the symptoms of stroke. The psalmist wrote, “IfI forget you, Jerusalem, may my right hand forget its skill. May mytongue cling to the roof of my mouth if I do not remember you.”This description points to a paralysis of the right side of the body(right hemiplegia) and the loss of speech (motor aphasia) that resultfrom a stroke on the left side of the brain. Basically, the exiledpsalmist is wishing upon himself the effects of a stroke if he heldanything other than Jerusalem as his highest priority. Some haveconsidered the collapse of Uzzah when he reached out to stabilize theark of the covenant (2Sam. 6:6–7) to be the consequenceof an apoplectic seizure. But since no actual paralysis was describedand death occurred immediately, this seems unlikely. It is moreprobable that God struck him down with an aortic aneurism or acoronary thrombosis.

Paralysis

Apossible case of paralysis may be described in the shriveled(atrophic) hand of JeroboamI (1Kings 13:4–6). In anangry outburst Jeroboam ordered the arrest of a prophet who condemnedthe altar at Bethel. When Jeroboam stretched out his hand, it“shriveled up, so that he could not pull it back.”Several complicated diagnoses have been offered to explain the“withered” hand, but it is possibly an example ofcataplexy, a sudden loss of muscle power following a strong emotionalstimulus. After intercession by the man of God, and the subsiding ofthe emotional outburst, the arm was restored.

Thethreat against the faithless shepherd of God’s people (Zech.11:17), which included a withered arm and blindness in the right eye,may refer to a form of paralysis known as tabes dorsalis, orlocomotor ataxia. Knifelike pains in the extremities and blindnesscharacterize this disease.

Paralysisis frequently mentioned in the NT (Matt. 8:6; 9:2, 6; 12:10; Mark2:3–5, 9, 10; 3:1, 3, 5; Luke 5:18, 24; 6:6; John 5:3; Acts9:33; Heb. 12:12). The exact diagnosis for each of these casesremains uncertain.

Thephysician Luke’s use of the Greek medical term paralelymenos(Luke 5:18, 24) suggests that some of these cases were caused bychronic organic disease. Others clearly were congenital (Acts 3:2;cf. 14:8). It is not necessary to rationalize the origin of theseexamples of paralysis as hysteria or pretense. The NT writersregarded the healing of these individuals by Jesus and the apostlesas miraculous.

MentalIllness and Brain Disorders

Casesof mental disease are generally described in the Bible by noting thesymptoms produced by the disorder. The particular cause of a mentalillness in the NT is often blamed on an unknown evil spirit orspirits (Luke 8:2). Such spirits, however, were subject to God’scontrol and operated only within the boundaries allowed by him(1Sam. 16:14–16, 23; 18:10; 19:9). Accordingly, in the OT“madness” and “confusion of mind” wereregarded as consequences of covenantal disobedience (Deut. 28:28,34).

Ithas been argued that King Saul displayed early indications ofpersonality disorder. Symptoms included pride, self-aggrandizement(1Sam. 11:6; 13:12; 15:9, 19), and ecstatic behavior(10:11–12). A rapid deterioration in Saul’s charactertranspired after David was anointed and became more popular (16:14;18:10–11). Since Saul demonstrated fear, jealousy, a sense ofpersecution, and homicidal tendencies, some scholars argue that hesuffered from paranoid schizophrenia.

Nebuchadnezzarsuffered a rare form of monomania in which he lived like a wild beastin the field eating grass (Dan. 4:33). David, in order to save hisown life, feigned insanity or perhaps epilepsy before the Philistineking Achish (1Sam. 21:12–15).

Inthe NT, individuals with mental disorders went about naked, mutilatedthemselves, lived in tombs (Mark 5:2), and exhibited violent behavior(Matt. 8:28). Such mental disorientation was often linked to demonpossession. Examples include the Syrophoenician’s child (Matt.15:22; Mark 7:25), the demoniacs at Gerasa (Matt. 8:28; Mark 5:2;Luke 8:27) and Capernaum (Mark 1:23; Luke 4:33), a blind and mutedemoniac (Matt. 12:22; Luke 11:14), and a fortune-telling slave girl(Acts 16:16). While such behavior is clinically suggestive ofparanoid schizophrenia or other mental disorders, themind-controlling influence of some extraneous negative force cannotbe ruled out.

Epilepsy(grand mal) causes the afflicted person to fall to the ground, foamat the mouth, and clench or grind the teeth (Matt. 17:15; Mark9:17–18; Luke 9:39). The description of Saul falling to theground in an ecstatic state (1Sam. 19:23–24) and Balaamfalling with open eyes may be indicative of an epileptic seizure. Inthe NT, Jesus healed many who suffered from epilepsy (Matt. 4:24;17:14–18; Mark 9:17–18; Luke 9:38–42). Somescholars have linked the light seen by Paul on the road to Damascuswith the aura that some epileptics experience prior to a seizure. Hissubsequent blindness has also been attributed to the epilepticdisturbance of the circulation of the blood in the brain.

ChildhoodDiseases

Thecause of the death of the widow’s son at Zarephath is unknown(1Kings 17:17–22). The death of the Shunammite woman’sson has been attributed to sunstroke (2Kings 4:18–37),although a headache is the only symptom recorded (v.19). Inboth cases there is too little evidence to present an accuratediagnosis.

Inthe first case, the boy at Zarephath stopped breathing (1Kings17:17). This may leave the door open to argue that Elijahresuscitated the child. However, in the second case, the text clearlystates that the Shunammite boy died (2Kings 4:20), implying aresurrection.

Infectiousand Communicable Diseases

Feverand other calamities are listed among the punishments for covenantalinfidelity (Deut. 28:22). Three different types of fever may beintentionally described here: “fever,” “inflammation,”and “scorching heat” (ESV: “fiery heat”).Fever is also mentioned frequently in the NT (Matt. 8:15; Mark1:30–31; Luke 4:38–39; John 4:52; Acts 28:8). Both Jesusand Paul healed individuals who had a fever. A number of these feverswere likely caused by malaria, since the disease was known to beendemic to the Jordan Valley and other marshy areas in Palestine.

Severalepidemics in which numerous people died of pestilence or plague arementioned in the OT (Exod. 11:1; 12:13; Num. 14:37; Zech. 14:12). Thefifth plague of Egypt (Exod. 9:3–6) has been attributed toJordan Rift Valley fever, which is spread by flies. Bubonic plaguehas been blamed for the malady that struck the Philistines (1Sam.5–6). However, it may have been the result of a severe form oftropical dysentery. Acute bacillary dysentery contracted in themilitary camp may also have been responsible for the epidemic thatkilled a large number of the Assyrian army (2Kings 19:35).

ParasiticDiseases

Somescholars have repeatedly argued that the “fiery serpents”(NIV: “venomous snakes”) encountered by Moses and thechildren of Israel (Num. 21:6–9) were in reality an infestationof the parasitic guinea worm (Dracunculus medinensis). Microscopicfleas ingested in drinking water carry the larvae of this slendernematode into the body. The larvae move from the digestive tract tothe skin. The adult worm, which may grow to a length of several feet,discharges its eggs into an ulcer on the skin. Death of the hostoccurs because of the resulting infection of the skin ulcers.

Afterthe conquest of Jericho, Joshua cursed the individual who wouldendeavor to rebuild the city (Josh. 6:26). Later, Hiel of Bethelattempted to rebuild the city and lost two of his sons as a result ofthe curse (1Kings 16:34). Elisha was then asked to purify thebad water at Jericho in order to allow a new settlement (2Kings2:19). Elisha obliged by throwing salt into the spring and therebymaking the water potable (2:20–22). Recent archaeological studyhas discovered the remains of certain snails in the mud-bricks usedto construct Jericho in the Bronze Age. These types of snails are nowknown to serve as intermediate hosts for the flatworm parasite thatcan cause schistosomiasis. The Schistosoma haematobium trematodeinfects the urinary tract and the bladder. It is possible that thistype of parasite was responsible for the death of Hiel’s twosons.

InNT times, Herod Agrippa apparently died of the complications of aparasitic disease, perhaps being infested by the larvae of flies(myiasis) in the bowels. Luke mentions that he was “eaten byworms” (skōlēkobrōtos [Acts 12:23]). The fatherof Publius also suffered from dysentery (Acts 28:8).

PhysicalDeformities and Abnormalities

Individualswith deformities were disqualified from priestly service (Lev.21:18–20). The list included lameness, limb damage, anddwarfism. The deformities mentioned here might have been congenitalor acquired. Mephibosheth was dropped by his nurse (2 Sam. 4:4) andperhaps suffered damage to the spinal cord. Jacob possibly sustainedinjury to an intervertebral disk (Gen. 32:32) causing a deformity anda limp. The woman who was “bent over” (Luke 13:10–17)might have suffered from an abnormality of the spine similar toscoliosis. It is difficult to ascertain the origin of the “shriveledhand” of the unnamed individual healed by Jesus (Matt.12:10–13; Mark 3:1–5; Luke 6:6–10). It could becongenital in character or a paralysis caused by any number offactors.

Diseasesand Disabilities of the Eyes and Ears

Physicalblindness is mentioned several times in the Bible. Blindness excludedone from serving as a priest (Lev. 21:18, 20). Blindness anddeafness, however, were disabilities requiring special care from thecommunity (Lev. 19:14; Deut. 27:18). The “weak eyes” ofLeah may refer to an eye condition (Gen. 29:17).

Blindnessin the biblical world was caused by various factors. Leviticus 26:16speaks of a fever that destroys the eyes. Flies probably wereresponsible for much of the conjunctivitis found in children. John9:1 mentions congenital blindness, which Jesus cured using mud madefrom spittle and dirt (John 9:6). In Mark 8:22–26 Jesus healeda blind man by spitting in his eye and laying hands on him (cf. Matt.20:34 with Mark10:52).

Congenitaldeafness would also be associated with mutism and speech defectsbecause a child learning to speak depends on imitation and mimicry.Jesus healed a man who was deaf and could barely talk (Mark 7:32–37).The man’s inability to say much possibly pointed to a loss ofhearing early in life.

SkinConditions

Variousskin and hair abnormalities are described in the Bible. Some made theindividual unclean (Lev. 13:30; 14:54). The OT speaks of “theboils of Egypt” (Deut. 28:27; cf. Exod. 9:9). Skin ailmentsincluded tumors, festering sores, boils, infections, and the itch(Deut. 28:27, 35; Isa. 3:7). Job complained of a litany of ailments:broken and festering skin (7:5), multiple wounds (9:17), blackpeeling skin and fever (30:30), gnawing bone pain (2:5; 19:20;30:17), insomnia (7:3–4), and wasting away (33:21). Thesesymptoms have been diagnosed as indications of yaws or eczema. Apoultice made of figs cured Hezekiah’s boil (2Kings20:7).

Leprosywas once thought to be a common problem in the biblical world.Leprosy (Hansen’s disease) is a slow, progressive chronicinfectious disease caused by a bacterium. Symptoms include loss ofsensation and loss of parts of the body. Evidence for this type ofdisease in Palestine is rare. Uzziah may have had a true case ofHansen’s disease. He was quarantined until the day he died(2Chron. 26:21).

Scholarsnow suggest that the symptoms of the disease described in the Bibledo not fit this pattern and thus do not signify leprosy (Hansen’sdisease) as it is known today. Instead, the word that Englishversions translate as “leprosy” (Heb. root tsr’)probably refers to different types of infectious skin disease, oftencharacterized by a long-standing, patchy skin condition associatedwith peeling or flakiness and redness of skin. Evidence points moretoward psoriasis, fungal infections, or dermatitis.

Thisdisease could appear in humans (Lev. 14:2), on buildings (14:34), andon clothing (14:55). It was not limited to the extremities but couldoccur on the head (14:42–44). It could run its course quickly(13:5–8). It made the individual ceremonially unclean, but itwas also curable (Lev. 14:3; 2Kings 5:1–27). Individualswith the disease were not necessarily shunned (2Kings 7; Matt.26:6// Mark 14:3). Moses (Exod. 4:6), Miriam (Num. 12:10), andNaaman experienced this type of skin disease (2Kings 5:1–27).Jesus healed many suffering from skin ailments (Matt. 8:2–3;Mark 1:40–42; Luke 5:12–13), including the ten “menwho had leprosy” (Luke 17:12–14).

Ailmentsof an Unknown Nature

Somecases in the Bible present insufficient evidence for scholars torender a clear diagnosis. King Asa suffered a disease in his feet(2Chron. 16:12). However, in the OT the Hebrew expression for“feet” is sometimes used euphemistically for the sexualorgans (Judg. 3:24 KJV). Because of this, the exact nature of thedisease is ambiguous. Jehoram was afflicted with “an incurabledisease of the bowels” (2Chron. 21:18–19). Otherunknown ailments factor in the deaths of the firstborn son of Davidand Bathsheba (2Sam. 12:15), of Jeroboam’s son in infancy(1Kings 14:17), of Elisha (2Kings 13:14), and ofEzekiel’s wife (Ezek. 24:16).

(Disabilities; Disability; Deformity; Deformities; Sickness]The Bible often speaks of health, healing, disease, andillness. Good health was a sign of God’s favor, and healing wasalso the work of God and his divinely empowered agents. These agentsincluded the prophets (1Kings 17:8–23; 2Kings5:1–15), the apostles (Acts 3:1–10), and the messiah(Mal. 4:2). The divine prerogative of Jesus was to heal (Mark 1:32;6:56; Matt. 4:23; 8:16; 15:30; 21:14; Luke 6:10, 17–19), andmiraculous healings were a sign of his messianic office (Luke7:20–23). Disease, on the other hand, was regarded as a sign ofGod’s disfavor. Within a covenantal context, God could senddisease to punish the sinner (Exod. 4:11; 32:35).

TheBible assigns a wide variety of names to various diseases and theirsymptoms. These terms are nontechnical and generally descriptive.Some are uncertain in meaning. In most cases they describe thesymptoms of the disease, not the disease itself. Diagnosis often wasbased on incomplete observation and nonclinical examination. TheBible also presupposes supernatural intervention in the life of aperson. Healing occurred when God’s agents touched individuals,cast out demons, and resurrected the dead.

AncientNear Eastern Influences

Inthe ancient Near East the knowledge of disease and medicine wasprecritical. Bacteria and viruses were virtually unknown.Mesopotamian literature contains many references to medicine,physicians, and medical practice. Minerals, salts, herbs, and otherbotanicals were used to make up treatments. Babylonian physiciansalso administered prescriptions accompanied by incantations. Diseasewas considered to be the result of a violation of a taboo orpossession by a demon. The Code of Hammurabi (1750 BC) includes lawsregulating the practice of medicine and surgery by physicians. InEgypt medicine and healing were connected to the gods. Tomb paintingsand several papyrus documents describe the developing state ofEgyptian medicine, pharmacy, and surgery.

Greekphysicians admired and sought to learn the skills of the Egyptians.However, the early Greek doctor Hippocrates (460–370 BC),called the “Father of Medicine,” is credited with beingthe first physician to reject the belief that supernatural or divineforces cause illness. He argued that disease is the result ofenvironmental factors, diet, and living habits, not a punishmentimposed by the gods.

Itis clear that the biblical world shared with the ancient Near Eastthe same types of maladies common to tropical or subtropicalclimates. These include malaria, tropical fevers, dysentery, andsunstroke. The tendency of the hot climate to produce frequentdroughts and famine certainly contributed to similar types ofdiseases throughout the Fertile Crescent. Additionally, it must beremembered that Palestine was a land bridge between the Mesopotamianand Egyptian worlds. Migrations carry not only goods and products,but also parasites, communicable disease, and epidemics.

BiblicalConcept of Disease

Thereligious tradition of the Hebrews repudiated the magical or demonicorigin of disease. Hence, moral, ethical, and spiritual factorsregulated disease and illness. This was true for the individual aswell as the community. The Hebrews, like the Egyptians, alsorecognized that much sickness arose from the individual’srelationship to the physical environment. Great stress was placed onhygiene and preventive medicine.

Pentateuchallegislation offered seven covenantal principles designed to preventthe possibility of disease and sickness: (1)Sabbath observancefor humans, animals, and the land, which enforced regular periods ofrest (Gen. 2:3); (2)dietary regulations, which divided foodinto efficient categories of clean and unclean (Lev. 11);(3)circumcision, which carried physical benefits as well asreligious and moral implications (Gen. 17:9; circumcision is the onlyexample of Hebrew surgery); (4)laws governing sexualrelationships and health, including a list of forbidden degrees ofmarital relationships (Lev. 18–20); (5)provisions forindividual sexual hygiene (Lev. 15); (6)stipulations forcleanliness and bodily purification (Lev. 14:2; 15:2); (7) sanitaryand hygienic regulations for camp life (Num. 31:19; Deut. 23:12).

InNT times magical charms and incantations were used along with folkremedies in an effort to cure disease. Jesus repudiated these means.He also suggested that sickness and disease were not directpunishments for sin (John 9:2). In the Sermon on the Mount (Matt.5–7), Jesus confirmed that the ethical and religious standardsof the new covenant promoted the total health of the community andthe individual.

CirculatoryDiseases

Nabalmost likely suffered a cerebrovascular accident or stroke (1Sam.25:36–38). After a heavy bout of drinking, his heart “died”(KJV; NIV: “failed”), and he became paralyzed, lapsedinto a coma, and died ten days later. Psalm 137:5–6 may containa clinical example of the symptoms of stroke. The psalmist wrote, “IfI forget you, Jerusalem, may my right hand forget its skill. May mytongue cling to the roof of my mouth if I do not remember you.”This description points to a paralysis of the right side of the body(right hemiplegia) and the loss of speech (motor aphasia) that resultfrom a stroke on the left side of the brain. Basically, the exiledpsalmist is wishing upon himself the effects of a stroke if he heldanything other than Jerusalem as his highest priority. Some haveconsidered the collapse of Uzzah when he reached out to stabilize theark of the covenant (2Sam. 6:6–7) to be the consequenceof an apoplectic seizure. But since no actual paralysis was describedand death occurred immediately, this seems unlikely. It is moreprobable that God struck him down with an aortic aneurism or acoronary thrombosis.

Paralysis

Apossible case of paralysis may be described in the shriveled(atrophic) hand of JeroboamI (1Kings 13:4–6). In anangry outburst Jeroboam ordered the arrest of a prophet who condemnedthe altar at Bethel. When Jeroboam stretched out his hand, it“shriveled up, so that he could not pull it back.”Several complicated diagnoses have been offered to explain the“withered” hand, but it is possibly an example ofcataplexy, a sudden loss of muscle power following a strong emotionalstimulus. After intercession by the man of God, and the subsiding ofthe emotional outburst, the arm was restored.

Thethreat against the faithless shepherd of God’s people (Zech.11:17), which included a withered arm and blindness in the right eye,may refer to a form of paralysis known as tabes dorsalis, orlocomotor ataxia. Knifelike pains in the extremities and blindnesscharacterize this disease.

Paralysisis frequently mentioned in the NT (Matt. 8:6; 9:2, 6; 12:10; Mark2:3–5, 9, 10; 3:1, 3, 5; Luke 5:18, 24; 6:6; John 5:3; Acts9:33; Heb. 12:12). The exact diagnosis for each of these casesremains uncertain.

Thephysician Luke’s use of the Greek medical term paralelymenos(Luke 5:18, 24) suggests that some of these cases were caused bychronic organic disease. Others clearly were congenital (Acts 3:2;cf. 14:8). It is not necessary to rationalize the origin of theseexamples of paralysis as hysteria or pretense. The NT writersregarded the healing of these individuals by Jesus and the apostlesas miraculous.

MentalIllness and Brain Disorders

Casesof mental disease are generally described in the Bible by noting thesymptoms produced by the disorder. The particular cause of a mentalillness in the NT is often blamed on an unknown evil spirit orspirits (Luke 8:2). Such spirits, however, were subject to God’scontrol and operated only within the boundaries allowed by him(1Sam. 16:14–16, 23; 18:10; 19:9). Accordingly, in the OT“madness” and “confusion of mind” wereregarded as consequences of covenantal disobedience (Deut. 28:28,34).

Ithas been argued that King Saul displayed early indications ofpersonality disorder. Symptoms included pride, self-aggrandizement(1Sam. 11:6; 13:12; 15:9, 19), and ecstatic behavior(10:11–12). A rapid deterioration in Saul’s charactertranspired after David was anointed and became more popular (16:14;18:10–11). Since Saul demonstrated fear, jealousy, a sense ofpersecution, and homicidal tendencies, some scholars argue that hesuffered from paranoid schizophrenia.

Nebuchadnezzarsuffered a rare form of monomania in which he lived like a wild beastin the field eating grass (Dan. 4:33). David, in order to save hisown life, feigned insanity or perhaps epilepsy before the Philistineking Achish (1Sam. 21:12–15).

Inthe NT, individuals with mental disorders went about naked, mutilatedthemselves, lived in tombs (Mark 5:2), and exhibited violent behavior(Matt. 8:28). Such mental disorientation was often linked to demonpossession. Examples include the Syrophoenician’s child (Matt.15:22; Mark 7:25), the demoniacs at Gerasa (Matt. 8:28; Mark 5:2;Luke 8:27) and Capernaum (Mark 1:23; Luke 4:33), a blind and mutedemoniac (Matt. 12:22; Luke 11:14), and a fortune-telling slave girl(Acts 16:16). While such behavior is clinically suggestive ofparanoid schizophrenia or other mental disorders, themind-controlling influence of some extraneous negative force cannotbe ruled out.

Epilepsy(grand mal) causes the afflicted person to fall to the ground, foamat the mouth, and clench or grind the teeth (Matt. 17:15; Mark9:17–18; Luke 9:39). The description of Saul falling to theground in an ecstatic state (1Sam. 19:23–24) and Balaamfalling with open eyes may be indicative of an epileptic seizure. Inthe NT, Jesus healed many who suffered from epilepsy (Matt. 4:24;17:14–18; Mark 9:17–18; Luke 9:38–42). Somescholars have linked the light seen by Paul on the road to Damascuswith the aura that some epileptics experience prior to a seizure. Hissubsequent blindness has also been attributed to the epilepticdisturbance of the circulation of the blood in the brain.

ChildhoodDiseases

Thecause of the death of the widow’s son at Zarephath is unknown(1Kings 17:17–22). The death of the Shunammite woman’sson has been attributed to sunstroke (2Kings 4:18–37),although a headache is the only symptom recorded (v.19). Inboth cases there is too little evidence to present an accuratediagnosis.

Inthe first case, the boy at Zarephath stopped breathing (1Kings17:17). This may leave the door open to argue that Elijahresuscitated the child. However, in the second case, the text clearlystates that the Shunammite boy died (2Kings 4:20), implying aresurrection.

Infectiousand Communicable Diseases

Feverand other calamities are listed among the punishments for covenantalinfidelity (Deut. 28:22). Three different types of fever may beintentionally described here: “fever,” “inflammation,”and “scorching heat” (ESV: “fiery heat”).Fever is also mentioned frequently in the NT (Matt. 8:15; Mark1:30–31; Luke 4:38–39; John 4:52; Acts 28:8). Both Jesusand Paul healed individuals who had a fever. A number of these feverswere likely caused by malaria, since the disease was known to beendemic to the Jordan Valley and other marshy areas in Palestine.

Severalepidemics in which numerous people died of pestilence or plague arementioned in the OT (Exod. 11:1; 12:13; Num. 14:37; Zech. 14:12). Thefifth plague of Egypt (Exod. 9:3–6) has been attributed toJordan Rift Valley fever, which is spread by flies. Bubonic plaguehas been blamed for the malady that struck the Philistines (1Sam.5–6). However, it may have been the result of a severe form oftropical dysentery. Acute bacillary dysentery contracted in themilitary camp may also have been responsible for the epidemic thatkilled a large number of the Assyrian army (2Kings 19:35).

ParasiticDiseases

Somescholars have repeatedly argued that the “fiery serpents”(NIV: “venomous snakes”) encountered by Moses and thechildren of Israel (Num. 21:6–9) were in reality an infestationof the parasitic guinea worm (Dracunculus medinensis). Microscopicfleas ingested in drinking water carry the larvae of this slendernematode into the body. The larvae move from the digestive tract tothe skin. The adult worm, which may grow to a length of several feet,discharges its eggs into an ulcer on the skin. Death of the hostoccurs because of the resulting infection of the skin ulcers.

Afterthe conquest of Jericho, Joshua cursed the individual who wouldendeavor to rebuild the city (Josh. 6:26). Later, Hiel of Bethelattempted to rebuild the city and lost two of his sons as a result ofthe curse (1Kings 16:34). Elisha was then asked to purify thebad water at Jericho in order to allow a new settlement (2Kings2:19). Elisha obliged by throwing salt into the spring and therebymaking the water potable (2:20–22). Recent archaeological studyhas discovered the remains of certain snails in the mud-bricks usedto construct Jericho in the Bronze Age. These types of snails are nowknown to serve as intermediate hosts for the flatworm parasite thatcan cause schistosomiasis. The Schistosoma haematobium trematodeinfects the urinary tract and the bladder. It is possible that thistype of parasite was responsible for the death of Hiel’s twosons.

InNT times, Herod Agrippa apparently died of the complications of aparasitic disease, perhaps being infested by the larvae of flies(myiasis) in the bowels. Luke mentions that he was “eaten byworms” (skōlēkobrōtos [Acts 12:23]). The fatherof Publius also suffered from dysentery (Acts 28:8).

PhysicalDeformities and Abnormalities

Individualswith deformities were disqualified from priestly service (Lev.21:18–20). The list included lameness, limb damage, anddwarfism. The deformities mentioned here might have been congenitalor acquired. Mephibosheth was dropped by his nurse (2 Sam. 4:4) andperhaps suffered damage to the spinal cord. Jacob possibly sustainedinjury to an intervertebral disk (Gen. 32:32) causing a deformity anda limp. The woman who was “bent over” (Luke 13:10–17)might have suffered from an abnormality of the spine similar toscoliosis. It is difficult to ascertain the origin of the “shriveledhand” of the unnamed individual healed by Jesus (Matt.12:10–13; Mark 3:1–5; Luke 6:6–10). It could becongenital in character or a paralysis caused by any number offactors.

Diseasesand Disabilities of the Eyes and Ears

Physicalblindness is mentioned several times in the Bible. Blindness excludedone from serving as a priest (Lev. 21:18, 20). Blindness anddeafness, however, were disabilities requiring special care from thecommunity (Lev. 19:14; Deut. 27:18). The “weak eyes” ofLeah may refer to an eye condition (Gen. 29:17).

Blindnessin the biblical world was caused by various factors. Leviticus 26:16speaks of a fever that destroys the eyes. Flies probably wereresponsible for much of the conjunctivitis found in children. John9:1 mentions congenital blindness, which Jesus cured using mud madefrom spittle and dirt (John 9:6). In Mark 8:22–26 Jesus healeda blind man by spitting in his eye and laying hands on him (cf. Matt.20:34 with Mark10:52).

Congenitaldeafness would also be associated with mutism and speech defectsbecause a child learning to speak depends on imitation and mimicry.Jesus healed a man who was deaf and could barely talk (Mark 7:32–37).The man’s inability to say much possibly pointed to a loss ofhearing early in life.

SkinConditions

Variousskin and hair abnormalities are described in the Bible. Some made theindividual unclean (Lev. 13:30; 14:54). The OT speaks of “theboils of Egypt” (Deut. 28:27; cf. Exod. 9:9). Skin ailmentsincluded tumors, festering sores, boils, infections, and the itch(Deut. 28:27, 35; Isa. 3:7). Job complained of a litany of ailments:broken and festering skin (7:5), multiple wounds (9:17), blackpeeling skin and fever (30:30), gnawing bone pain (2:5; 19:20;30:17), insomnia (7:3–4), and wasting away (33:21). Thesesymptoms have been diagnosed as indications of yaws or eczema. Apoultice made of figs cured Hezekiah’s boil (2Kings20:7).

Leprosywas once thought to be a common problem in the biblical world.Leprosy (Hansen’s disease) is a slow, progressive chronicinfectious disease caused by a bacterium. Symptoms include loss ofsensation and loss of parts of the body. Evidence for this type ofdisease in Palestine is rare. Uzziah may have had a true case ofHansen’s disease. He was quarantined until the day he died(2Chron. 26:21).

Scholarsnow suggest that the symptoms of the disease described in the Bibledo not fit this pattern and thus do not signify leprosy (Hansen’sdisease) as it is known today. Instead, the word that Englishversions translate as “leprosy” (Heb. root tsr’)probably refers to different types of infectious skin disease, oftencharacterized by a long-standing, patchy skin condition associatedwith peeling or flakiness and redness of skin. Evidence points moretoward psoriasis, fungal infections, or dermatitis.

Thisdisease could appear in humans (Lev. 14:2), on buildings (14:34), andon clothing (14:55). It was not limited to the extremities but couldoccur on the head (14:42–44). It could run its course quickly(13:5–8). It made the individual ceremonially unclean, but itwas also curable (Lev. 14:3; 2Kings 5:1–27). Individualswith the disease were not necessarily shunned (2Kings 7; Matt.26:6// Mark 14:3). Moses (Exod. 4:6), Miriam (Num. 12:10), andNaaman experienced this type of skin disease (2Kings 5:1–27).Jesus healed many suffering from skin ailments (Matt. 8:2–3;Mark 1:40–42; Luke 5:12–13), including the ten “menwho had leprosy” (Luke 17:12–14).

Ailmentsof an Unknown Nature

Somecases in the Bible present insufficient evidence for scholars torender a clear diagnosis. King Asa suffered a disease in his feet(2Chron. 16:12). However, in the OT the Hebrew expression for“feet” is sometimes used euphemistically for the sexualorgans (Judg. 3:24 KJV). Because of this, the exact nature of thedisease is ambiguous. Jehoram was afflicted with “an incurabledisease of the bowels” (2Chron. 21:18–19). Otherunknown ailments factor in the deaths of the firstborn son of Davidand Bathsheba (2Sam. 12:15), of Jeroboam’s son in infancy(1Kings 14:17), of Elisha (2Kings 13:14), and ofEzekiel’s wife (Ezek. 24:16).

(Disabilities; Disability; Deformity; Deformities; Sickness]The Bible often speaks of health, healing, disease, andillness. Good health was a sign of God’s favor, and healing wasalso the work of God and his divinely empowered agents. These agentsincluded the prophets (1Kings 17:8–23; 2Kings5:1–15), the apostles (Acts 3:1–10), and the messiah(Mal. 4:2). The divine prerogative of Jesus was to heal (Mark 1:32;6:56; Matt. 4:23; 8:16; 15:30; 21:14; Luke 6:10, 17–19), andmiraculous healings were a sign of his messianic office (Luke7:20–23). Disease, on the other hand, was regarded as a sign ofGod’s disfavor. Within a covenantal context, God could senddisease to punish the sinner (Exod. 4:11; 32:35).

TheBible assigns a wide variety of names to various diseases and theirsymptoms. These terms are nontechnical and generally descriptive.Some are uncertain in meaning. In most cases they describe thesymptoms of the disease, not the disease itself. Diagnosis often wasbased on incomplete observation and nonclinical examination. TheBible also presupposes supernatural intervention in the life of aperson. Healing occurred when God’s agents touched individuals,cast out demons, and resurrected the dead.

AncientNear Eastern Influences

Inthe ancient Near East the knowledge of disease and medicine wasprecritical. Bacteria and viruses were virtually unknown.Mesopotamian literature contains many references to medicine,physicians, and medical practice. Minerals, salts, herbs, and otherbotanicals were used to make up treatments. Babylonian physiciansalso administered prescriptions accompanied by incantations. Diseasewas considered to be the result of a violation of a taboo orpossession by a demon. The Code of Hammurabi (1750 BC) includes lawsregulating the practice of medicine and surgery by physicians. InEgypt medicine and healing were connected to the gods. Tomb paintingsand several papyrus documents describe the developing state ofEgyptian medicine, pharmacy, and surgery.

Greekphysicians admired and sought to learn the skills of the Egyptians.However, the early Greek doctor Hippocrates (460–370 BC),called the “Father of Medicine,” is credited with beingthe first physician to reject the belief that supernatural or divineforces cause illness. He argued that disease is the result ofenvironmental factors, diet, and living habits, not a punishmentimposed by the gods.

Itis clear that the biblical world shared with the ancient Near Eastthe same types of maladies common to tropical or subtropicalclimates. These include malaria, tropical fevers, dysentery, andsunstroke. The tendency of the hot climate to produce frequentdroughts and famine certainly contributed to similar types ofdiseases throughout the Fertile Crescent. Additionally, it must beremembered that Palestine was a land bridge between the Mesopotamianand Egyptian worlds. Migrations carry not only goods and products,but also parasites, communicable disease, and epidemics.

BiblicalConcept of Disease

Thereligious tradition of the Hebrews repudiated the magical or demonicorigin of disease. Hence, moral, ethical, and spiritual factorsregulated disease and illness. This was true for the individual aswell as the community. The Hebrews, like the Egyptians, alsorecognized that much sickness arose from the individual’srelationship to the physical environment. Great stress was placed onhygiene and preventive medicine.

Pentateuchallegislation offered seven covenantal principles designed to preventthe possibility of disease and sickness: (1)Sabbath observancefor humans, animals, and the land, which enforced regular periods ofrest (Gen. 2:3); (2)dietary regulations, which divided foodinto efficient categories of clean and unclean (Lev. 11);(3)circumcision, which carried physical benefits as well asreligious and moral implications (Gen. 17:9; circumcision is the onlyexample of Hebrew surgery); (4)laws governing sexualrelationships and health, including a list of forbidden degrees ofmarital relationships (Lev. 18–20); (5)provisions forindividual sexual hygiene (Lev. 15); (6)stipulations forcleanliness and bodily purification (Lev. 14:2; 15:2); (7) sanitaryand hygienic regulations for camp life (Num. 31:19; Deut. 23:12).

InNT times magical charms and incantations were used along with folkremedies in an effort to cure disease. Jesus repudiated these means.He also suggested that sickness and disease were not directpunishments for sin (John 9:2). In the Sermon on the Mount (Matt.5–7), Jesus confirmed that the ethical and religious standardsof the new covenant promoted the total health of the community andthe individual.

CirculatoryDiseases

Nabalmost likely suffered a cerebrovascular accident or stroke (1Sam.25:36–38). After a heavy bout of drinking, his heart “died”(KJV; NIV: “failed”), and he became paralyzed, lapsedinto a coma, and died ten days later. Psalm 137:5–6 may containa clinical example of the symptoms of stroke. The psalmist wrote, “IfI forget you, Jerusalem, may my right hand forget its skill. May mytongue cling to the roof of my mouth if I do not remember you.”This description points to a paralysis of the right side of the body(right hemiplegia) and the loss of speech (motor aphasia) that resultfrom a stroke on the left side of the brain. Basically, the exiledpsalmist is wishing upon himself the effects of a stroke if he heldanything other than Jerusalem as his highest priority. Some haveconsidered the collapse of Uzzah when he reached out to stabilize theark of the covenant (2Sam. 6:6–7) to be the consequenceof an apoplectic seizure. But since no actual paralysis was describedand death occurred immediately, this seems unlikely. It is moreprobable that God struck him down with an aortic aneurism or acoronary thrombosis.

Paralysis

Apossible case of paralysis may be described in the shriveled(atrophic) hand of JeroboamI (1Kings 13:4–6). In anangry outburst Jeroboam ordered the arrest of a prophet who condemnedthe altar at Bethel. When Jeroboam stretched out his hand, it“shriveled up, so that he could not pull it back.”Several complicated diagnoses have been offered to explain the“withered” hand, but it is possibly an example ofcataplexy, a sudden loss of muscle power following a strong emotionalstimulus. After intercession by the man of God, and the subsiding ofthe emotional outburst, the arm was restored.

Thethreat against the faithless shepherd of God’s people (Zech.11:17), which included a withered arm and blindness in the right eye,may refer to a form of paralysis known as tabes dorsalis, orlocomotor ataxia. Knifelike pains in the extremities and blindnesscharacterize this disease.

Paralysisis frequently mentioned in the NT (Matt. 8:6; 9:2, 6; 12:10; Mark2:3–5, 9, 10; 3:1, 3, 5; Luke 5:18, 24; 6:6; John 5:3; Acts9:33; Heb. 12:12). The exact diagnosis for each of these casesremains uncertain.

Thephysician Luke’s use of the Greek medical term paralelymenos(Luke 5:18, 24) suggests that some of these cases were caused bychronic organic disease. Others clearly were congenital (Acts 3:2;cf. 14:8). It is not necessary to rationalize the origin of theseexamples of paralysis as hysteria or pretense. The NT writersregarded the healing of these individuals by Jesus and the apostlesas miraculous.

MentalIllness and Brain Disorders

Casesof mental disease are generally described in the Bible by noting thesymptoms produced by the disorder. The particular cause of a mentalillness in the NT is often blamed on an unknown evil spirit orspirits (Luke 8:2). Such spirits, however, were subject to God’scontrol and operated only within the boundaries allowed by him(1Sam. 16:14–16, 23; 18:10; 19:9). Accordingly, in the OT“madness” and “confusion of mind” wereregarded as consequences of covenantal disobedience (Deut. 28:28,34).

Ithas been argued that King Saul displayed early indications ofpersonality disorder. Symptoms included pride, self-aggrandizement(1Sam. 11:6; 13:12; 15:9, 19), and ecstatic behavior(10:11–12). A rapid deterioration in Saul’s charactertranspired after David was anointed and became more popular (16:14;18:10–11). Since Saul demonstrated fear, jealousy, a sense ofpersecution, and homicidal tendencies, some scholars argue that hesuffered from paranoid schizophrenia.

Nebuchadnezzarsuffered a rare form of monomania in which he lived like a wild beastin the field eating grass (Dan. 4:33). David, in order to save hisown life, feigned insanity or perhaps epilepsy before the Philistineking Achish (1Sam. 21:12–15).

Inthe NT, individuals with mental disorders went about naked, mutilatedthemselves, lived in tombs (Mark 5:2), and exhibited violent behavior(Matt. 8:28). Such mental disorientation was often linked to demonpossession. Examples include the Syrophoenician’s child (Matt.15:22; Mark 7:25), the demoniacs at Gerasa (Matt. 8:28; Mark 5:2;Luke 8:27) and Capernaum (Mark 1:23; Luke 4:33), a blind and mutedemoniac (Matt. 12:22; Luke 11:14), and a fortune-telling slave girl(Acts 16:16). While such behavior is clinically suggestive ofparanoid schizophrenia or other mental disorders, themind-controlling influence of some extraneous negative force cannotbe ruled out.

Epilepsy(grand mal) causes the afflicted person to fall to the ground, foamat the mouth, and clench or grind the teeth (Matt. 17:15; Mark9:17–18; Luke 9:39). The description of Saul falling to theground in an ecstatic state (1Sam. 19:23–24) and Balaamfalling with open eyes may be indicative of an epileptic seizure. Inthe NT, Jesus healed many who suffered from epilepsy (Matt. 4:24;17:14–18; Mark 9:17–18; Luke 9:38–42). Somescholars have linked the light seen by Paul on the road to Damascuswith the aura that some epileptics experience prior to a seizure. Hissubsequent blindness has also been attributed to the epilepticdisturbance of the circulation of the blood in the brain.

ChildhoodDiseases

Thecause of the death of the widow’s son at Zarephath is unknown(1Kings 17:17–22). The death of the Shunammite woman’sson has been attributed to sunstroke (2Kings 4:18–37),although a headache is the only symptom recorded (v.19). Inboth cases there is too little evidence to present an accuratediagnosis.

Inthe first case, the boy at Zarephath stopped breathing (1Kings17:17). This may leave the door open to argue that Elijahresuscitated the child. However, in the second case, the text clearlystates that the Shunammite boy died (2Kings 4:20), implying aresurrection.

Infectiousand Communicable Diseases

Feverand other calamities are listed among the punishments for covenantalinfidelity (Deut. 28:22). Three different types of fever may beintentionally described here: “fever,” “inflammation,”and “scorching heat” (ESV: “fiery heat”).Fever is also mentioned frequently in the NT (Matt. 8:15; Mark1:30–31; Luke 4:38–39; John 4:52; Acts 28:8). Both Jesusand Paul healed individuals who had a fever. A number of these feverswere likely caused by malaria, since the disease was known to beendemic to the Jordan Valley and other marshy areas in Palestine.

Severalepidemics in which numerous people died of pestilence or plague arementioned in the OT (Exod. 11:1; 12:13; Num. 14:37; Zech. 14:12). Thefifth plague of Egypt (Exod. 9:3–6) has been attributed toJordan Rift Valley fever, which is spread by flies. Bubonic plaguehas been blamed for the malady that struck the Philistines (1Sam.5–6). However, it may have been the result of a severe form oftropical dysentery. Acute bacillary dysentery contracted in themilitary camp may also have been responsible for the epidemic thatkilled a large number of the Assyrian army (2Kings 19:35).

ParasiticDiseases

Somescholars have repeatedly argued that the “fiery serpents”(NIV: “venomous snakes”) encountered by Moses and thechildren of Israel (Num. 21:6–9) were in reality an infestationof the parasitic guinea worm (Dracunculus medinensis). Microscopicfleas ingested in drinking water carry the larvae of this slendernematode into the body. The larvae move from the digestive tract tothe skin. The adult worm, which may grow to a length of several feet,discharges its eggs into an ulcer on the skin. Death of the hostoccurs because of the resulting infection of the skin ulcers.

Afterthe conquest of Jericho, Joshua cursed the individual who wouldendeavor to rebuild the city (Josh. 6:26). Later, Hiel of Bethelattempted to rebuild the city and lost two of his sons as a result ofthe curse (1Kings 16:34). Elisha was then asked to purify thebad water at Jericho in order to allow a new settlement (2Kings2:19). Elisha obliged by throwing salt into the spring and therebymaking the water potable (2:20–22). Recent archaeological studyhas discovered the remains of certain snails in the mud-bricks usedto construct Jericho in the Bronze Age. These types of snails are nowknown to serve as intermediate hosts for the flatworm parasite thatcan cause schistosomiasis. The Schistosoma haematobium trematodeinfects the urinary tract and the bladder. It is possible that thistype of parasite was responsible for the death of Hiel’s twosons.

InNT times, Herod Agrippa apparently died of the complications of aparasitic disease, perhaps being infested by the larvae of flies(myiasis) in the bowels. Luke mentions that he was “eaten byworms” (skōlēkobrōtos [Acts 12:23]). The fatherof Publius also suffered from dysentery (Acts 28:8).

PhysicalDeformities and Abnormalities

Individualswith deformities were disqualified from priestly service (Lev.21:18–20). The list included lameness, limb damage, anddwarfism. The deformities mentioned here might have been congenitalor acquired. Mephibosheth was dropped by his nurse (2 Sam. 4:4) andperhaps suffered damage to the spinal cord. Jacob possibly sustainedinjury to an intervertebral disk (Gen. 32:32) causing a deformity anda limp. The woman who was “bent over” (Luke 13:10–17)might have suffered from an abnormality of the spine similar toscoliosis. It is difficult to ascertain the origin of the “shriveledhand” of the unnamed individual healed by Jesus (Matt.12:10–13; Mark 3:1–5; Luke 6:6–10). It could becongenital in character or a paralysis caused by any number offactors.

Diseasesand Disabilities of the Eyes and Ears

Physicalblindness is mentioned several times in the Bible. Blindness excludedone from serving as a priest (Lev. 21:18, 20). Blindness anddeafness, however, were disabilities requiring special care from thecommunity (Lev. 19:14; Deut. 27:18). The “weak eyes” ofLeah may refer to an eye condition (Gen. 29:17).

Blindnessin the biblical world was caused by various factors. Leviticus 26:16speaks of a fever that destroys the eyes. Flies probably wereresponsible for much of the conjunctivitis found in children. John9:1 mentions congenital blindness, which Jesus cured using mud madefrom spittle and dirt (John 9:6). In Mark 8:22–26 Jesus healeda blind man by spitting in his eye and laying hands on him (cf. Matt.20:34 with Mark10:52).

Congenitaldeafness would also be associated with mutism and speech defectsbecause a child learning to speak depends on imitation and mimicry.Jesus healed a man who was deaf and could barely talk (Mark 7:32–37).The man’s inability to say much possibly pointed to a loss ofhearing early in life.

SkinConditions

Variousskin and hair abnormalities are described in the Bible. Some made theindividual unclean (Lev. 13:30; 14:54). The OT speaks of “theboils of Egypt” (Deut. 28:27; cf. Exod. 9:9). Skin ailmentsincluded tumors, festering sores, boils, infections, and the itch(Deut. 28:27, 35; Isa. 3:7). Job complained of a litany of ailments:broken and festering skin (7:5), multiple wounds (9:17), blackpeeling skin and fever (30:30), gnawing bone pain (2:5; 19:20;30:17), insomnia (7:3–4), and wasting away (33:21). Thesesymptoms have been diagnosed as indications of yaws or eczema. Apoultice made of figs cured Hezekiah’s boil (2Kings20:7).

Leprosywas once thought to be a common problem in the biblical world.Leprosy (Hansen’s disease) is a slow, progressive chronicinfectious disease caused by a bacterium. Symptoms include loss ofsensation and loss of parts of the body. Evidence for this type ofdisease in Palestine is rare. Uzziah may have had a true case ofHansen’s disease. He was quarantined until the day he died(2Chron. 26:21).

Scholarsnow suggest that the symptoms of the disease described in the Bibledo not fit this pattern and thus do not signify leprosy (Hansen’sdisease) as it is known today. Instead, the word that Englishversions translate as “leprosy” (Heb. root tsr’)probably refers to different types of infectious skin disease, oftencharacterized by a long-standing, patchy skin condition associatedwith peeling or flakiness and redness of skin. Evidence points moretoward psoriasis, fungal infections, or dermatitis.

Thisdisease could appear in humans (Lev. 14:2), on buildings (14:34), andon clothing (14:55). It was not limited to the extremities but couldoccur on the head (14:42–44). It could run its course quickly(13:5–8). It made the individual ceremonially unclean, but itwas also curable (Lev. 14:3; 2Kings 5:1–27). Individualswith the disease were not necessarily shunned (2Kings 7; Matt.26:6// Mark 14:3). Moses (Exod. 4:6), Miriam (Num. 12:10), andNaaman experienced this type of skin disease (2Kings 5:1–27).Jesus healed many suffering from skin ailments (Matt. 8:2–3;Mark 1:40–42; Luke 5:12–13), including the ten “menwho had leprosy” (Luke 17:12–14).

Ailmentsof an Unknown Nature

Somecases in the Bible present insufficient evidence for scholars torender a clear diagnosis. King Asa suffered a disease in his feet(2Chron. 16:12). However, in the OT the Hebrew expression for“feet” is sometimes used euphemistically for the sexualorgans (Judg. 3:24 KJV). Because of this, the exact nature of thedisease is ambiguous. Jehoram was afflicted with “an incurabledisease of the bowels” (2Chron. 21:18–19). Otherunknown ailments factor in the deaths of the firstborn son of Davidand Bathsheba (2Sam. 12:15), of Jeroboam’s son in infancy(1Kings 14:17), of Elisha (2Kings 13:14), and ofEzekiel’s wife (Ezek. 24:16).

According to the Bible, the Samaritans are the descendants ofthe peoples whom SargonII settled in Samaria after he conqueredit and the northern Israelites (see also Samaria). As such, they werenot quite Jewish, not quite Gentile. Although there is a Samaritanreligious sect, it is a mistake to equate Samaritans in the Biblewith one of the sectarians in every instance. Samaritans arementioned rarely in the OT; for example, 2Kings 17:29 reportsthat the Samaritans worshiped the gods that they brought from theirhome countries at high places that they made.

TheNT mentions the Samaritans. The story of the woman at the well inJohn 4 depicts Jesus ministering to a Samaritan. We learn in thispassage (John 4:9) that Jews like Jesus did not eat or drink from thesame vessel as a Samaritan since they believed it would render themritually unclean [see NET: “For Jews use nothing in common withSamaritans”]. One of the chief points of contention betweenJews and Samaritans is highlighted in this passage: Samaritansbelieve that Mount Gerizim is God’s chosen worship site, notZion. Also alluded to here is the Samaritans’ belief in a“returning one” (Aram. taheb), who will guide theSamaritans to repentance and reestablish proper worship. In John 8:48Jesus’ opponents level a charge against him, asking him if heis not indeed a Samaritan and possessed by a demon.

Inthe Synoptic Gospels, Samaritans are variously depicted as beingincluded in Jesus’ ministry (Luke 9:52) or excluded from it(Matt. 10:5). In other places in the Gospels, Samaritans are used asa foil by which Jesus indicts his listeners for not following God aswell as they should. His Jewish audience would not have missed thepoint in his parable when the Samaritan proves to be a morecompassionate neighbor than the priest or Levite (Luke 10:25–37),or when Jesus heals ten lepers and only one, a Samaritan, returns topraise God and give thanks (17:16). Given Luke’s emphasis onthe inclusive nature of the Gospel, his mentioning of Samaritans insuch positive ways highlights that emphasis.

Inthe book of Acts, Luke continues to use the Samaritans as an exampleof how the Gospel is for everyone. Peter and John, after confirmingthat Samaria had received and responded to the word, preached in thevillages of the Samaritans (Acts 8:14–25).

Scholarsare not certain when Jews and Samaritans became two differentreligious groups, but most likely this happened when John Hyrcanusdestroyed the Samaritan temple on Mount Gerizim in 128 BC. Althoughthere were tensions before this, as is evident in Nehemiah and inJosephus, before the destruction of their temple the rift probablywas not complete.

TheSamaritans exist today and have the following basic beliefs:(1)There is only one God. (2)Moses was the last andgreatest prophet. (3)The five books of Moses are the onlyauthoritative Scripture. (4)Mount Gerizim is God’s chosenplace. (5)There will be a day of judgment and recompense.(6)The “returning one,” the Taheb, will appear.

Reconstructingthe beliefs of the Samaritans before the fourth century AD isdifficult because all we have before then are the sparse statementsof outside sources and archaeological remains. Archaeological remainsof a Samaritan synagogue on the Greek island of Delos includededicatory inscriptions dated from the late third to early secondcenturies BC and the second to first centuries BC. These inscriptionsmention those who worship on Mount Gerizim.